DOMESTIC  ANIMALS 


HISTORY  AND  DESCRIPTION 


HORSE,  MULE,  CATTLE,  SHEEP,  SWINE, 
POULTRY,  AND  FARM  DOGS. 

WITH    DIRECTIONS    FOR 

THEIR  MANAGEMENT,  BREEDING,  CROSSING,  REARING. 

FEEDING,  AND   PREPARATION   FOR  A 

PROFITABLE  MARKET 

ALSO, 

^"HEIR  PJSEASES,  AND  REMEDIES. 

TOGETHER  WITH 

FULL  DIRECTIONS  FOR  THE  MANAGEMENT  OF  THE  DAIRY. 


By  R.  L.  ALLEN, 

AUTHOR  OF  "  COMPEND  OF  AMERICAN  AGHICULTURK,"  ETC. 


NEW   YOEK: 
O.    M.    SAX  TON    &    COMPANY, 

Agricultural  Book  Publishers,  140  Fulton  St. 

1857. 


Entered   tccdftl  ng  to  an  Act  of  Congress  in  the  year  1847 

Bt    RICHARD    L.   ALLEN, 

Id  tht  Clem  s  Uffi  ;e  of  the  District  Court  of  the  United  States  for  the  Boathen 
District  of  New  York. 


INTEODUCTION. 


The  object  of  the  following  work,  on  the  History,  Breeding, 
Manao^ement,  Diseases,  &c.,  of  Domestic  Animals,  is  to  afford 
the  Stock-breeder  and  Grazier  a  connected  view  of  the  entire 
subject  in  which  he  has  so  deep  an  interest.  The  writer  has 
endeavored  to  compress  within  the  limited  space  assumed  as 
necessary  to  secure  a  general  circulation  and  perusal,  such 
principles  and  practice,  and  give  to  each  that  relative  promi- 
nence, which  it  becomes  the  practical  man  to  observe,  to 
realize  the  greatest  amount  of  value  for  the  labor  and  capital 
devoted  to  his  pursuits. 

Their  history  is  essential,  as  it  shows  theh  introduction  into 
the  United  States,  their  progress  during  the  various  stages  of 
their  improvement,  and  the  comparative  value  of  the  improved 
and  ordinary  breeds.  A  knowledge  of  the  best  mode  of 
breeding  and  management  is  of  still  higher  importance.  The 
first  will  enable  the  breeder  to  preserve  the  high  character  of 
the  animals  in  his  hands,  or  perhaps  still  farther  to  advance 
them;  while  proper  management  and  feeding  will  prevent 
that  deterioration  and  loss  from  disease,  which  frequently 
subtract  so  much  from  his  profits. 

A  larger  space  has  been  purposely  devoted  to  the  last 
topics,  in  preference  to  the  subject  of  diseases,  as  prevention  is 
not  only  less  troublesome  than  cure,  but  much  more  econom- 
ical. Feeding  and  management,  after  breeding,  are  really  the 
important  objects  in  view  to  the  Stock-breeder  and  Graziei,  for 
if  these  be  judiciously  attended  to,  disease  among  the  herda 
will  rarely  be  known. 


6  INTRODUCTION. 

The  subject  of  animal  diseases  is  complicated  and  little  un- 
derstood ;  and  to  be  properly  comprehended,  requires  years 
of  close,  inteUigent  study,  under  every  advantage  for  obtaining 
the  necessary  information.  Nearly  every  disorder  assumes 
various  shades  of  difference,  and  to  remove  it  eftectually  a 
corresponding  change  of  treatment  is  required.  How  absurd 
then  the  idea,  that  a  compilation  of  formal  remedies,  adminis- 
tered by  an  unskilful  or  inexperienced  manager,  will  be  of 
material  service  in  rescuing  his  herds  or  flocks  from  the  rava- 
ges of  disease.  All  that  can  consistently  be  done,  is  to  give 
a  few  simple  remedies  for  the  most  common  and  well-known 
ailments,  and  leave  to  nature  or  a  professional  farrier,  such  as 
are  more  complex  or  unusual. 

This  work  (with  many  subsequent  and  important  additions) 
constitutes  a  small  part  of  the  "  Compend  of  American  Agri- 
culture," the  favorable  reception  of  which,  though  but  recently 
given  to  the  public,  has  induced  the  writer  to  offer  this  im 
pcrtant  division  of  the  subject  in  its  present  detached  form. 

r^ew  York,  November.  18  i7. 


INDEX. 


Animals,  domestio,  reared  in  the  U. 

States 9 

their  number  and  value 9 

their  improvement 10 

adaptation  to  various  objects. . .  JO 

general  form  and  characteristics  13 

the  lungs     11 

respiration    14 

etfects  of 17 

perspiratior» —  IS 

food  which  supplies  respiration.  18 
circumstances    which   augment 

respiration 19 

food 21 

purposes  fulfilled  by  food 22 

nutritive    qualities    for  various 

animals-. ■ 23 

profit  of  feeding 25 

See  Cattle,  Sheep,  &c. 

Ass,  the 181 

varieties 181 

characteristics 182 

breeding  in  the  U.  States Ib2 

as  a  beast  of  burden 183 

Breeding— principles  of 11 

See  Cattle,  Sheep,  &c. 

Cattle— neat  or  horned 26 

various  domestic  breeds 20 

native  cattle 27 

Devons 29 

short-horns 30 

Herefords 35 

Ayrshire •. .  38 

management  of  calves 39 

Dreeding 41 

breaking  steers 42 

management  of  oxen 42 

fattening  and  stall-feeding 45 

Diseases 41,  50 

ho  veil 50 

choking  52 

inflammation  of  stomach 52 

mange  or  scab 52 

horn-ail— jaundice 53 

mad-itch— bloody  murrain 54 

hoof-ail 55 

loss  of  cud — scours  or  diarrhoea 

— warbles   or   grubs— wounds 

— puerperal  or  milk-fever 56 

caked   bags— garget— sore  teats 

— warts 57 

Cows  for  dairy 60 

management  of 61 

milking Gl 

See  Dairy. 
Comparative    value    of    oxen    and 

horses 190 

Churns 69 

Dairy,  the    60 


Dairy— selection  and  management  of 

cows ••60,61 

milking 51 

properties  of  milk 6S 

variations  in 63 

cream — clouted  ditto ti5 

Making  butter  from  sour,  sweet, 

and  clouted  cream 60,  67 

sourness  of  cream 68 

quickness  in  churning^ 68 

over-churnirig , 69 

temperature  of  milk  and  cream-  69 

advantages  of  churn'g  the  whole  69 

cleanliness  in  churning ...  70 

premium  butter,  how  made 70 

Orange  county    do.        do 71 

Making  cheese,  how  effected 72 

creamed  and  uncreamed 73 

buttermilk  cheese 73 

whey  do      74 

vegetable  substances  added  —  74 

preparation  of  rennet 75 

diff'erent  qualities  of  cheese 77 

warming  the  milk 77 

quality  of  rennet 73 

quantity  of  rennet 78 

treatment  of  curd 79 

separation  of  whey 80 

cheese,  salting 81 

addition  of  cream 81 

size  of  cheese 81 

mode  of  curing    82 

ammoniacal  cheese 82 

inoculating       do.     62 

premium  cheese,  how  made  —  83 
Ducks— see  Poultry. 

Farm  dogs 207-214 

Feeding  defined 21 

See  Cattle,  Sheep,  &c. 
Food,  comparative  nutritive  qual- 
ities of 22 

how  given,purposes  fulfilled  by  it    22 

changes  in 24 

See  Animals,  Products,  &c. 

Geese— see  Poultry. 
Guinea-hen — see  ditto. 

Hens— see  Poultry. 

Kinny— see  Ass, 

Horse— the  Arabian  and  Barb 138 

the  English 139 

American 141 

Arabians  in  America 139, 140  ,. 

Ranger,  the  Barb — Bussorah — 
Narraganset  pacers— Messen- 
ger, imported 140 

Morgan  horses 142 

Canadian  and  Spanish 143 

Conestoga 143 

Norman 144 

Cart,  Cleveland  bay,  Belfounder  143 


INDEX. 


iTAGE 

florses— Eclipse,  American 141 

points  of 146 

habits 147 

breeding 148 

management  of  colts 149 

breaking 150 

longevity,  feeding 151 

Diseases 1 54 

glanders 154 

lampas,  heaves,  &c 155 

catarrh  or  distemper,  spasmod- 
ic colic 156 

flatulent  colic 158 

inflammation  of  bowels 159 

physicking 162 

v/orms 164 

Lots 164 

wind-galls 165 

the  fetlock..... 166 

cutting 166 

sprain  of  the  coflln-joint— ring- 
bone   167 

enlargement  of  the  hock 168 

curb 168 

bone-spavin — swelled  legs 170 

grease 171 

setons 173 

founder — poison  from  weeds  ...  174 

inflammation  of  the  eyes 175 

stings  of  hornets,  &c 175 

sprain 175 

braises — fistula 176 

wounds — galls 176 

shoeing,  contraction  of  the  foot.  176 

corns 177 

over-reach,  forging  or  clicking. .  178 

the  bearing-rein 178 

the  bit 179 

stables 180 

comparati've  labor  with  oxen  • .  190 

M  lie,  the— breeding  in  the  U.  S.  . . .  183 

rearing  and  management 184 

advantages  over  horse-labor  ...  185 

valuable  qualities 185 

enduringness  of 186 

in  California 188 

economy  of  mule-labor 189 

Poultry — their  value 214 

Hens— constituent  of  eggs 214 

food 215 

general  management 216 

the  poultry-house 218 

varieties 220,  221 

diseases 222 

Turkey,  the 223 

breeding  and  management 223 

Peacock,  the 224 

Goose,  the — varieties— breeding. .  225 

feeding  and  food 225 

Ducks— feeding— varieties 226 

breeding  and  rearing 227 

iSbeep,  the 84 

uses  of— importance  of 85 

varieties  of  wild — domesticated  87 

native 89 


Paob 

Sheep— the  Merino,  history  of 90 

exportation  from  Spain 92 

importation  into  the  U.  States..  93 

varieties 94 

Saxon,  the 96 

Rambouillet,  the 99 

history  of  Merino  in  U.  States. .  101 

improvements  of 102 

peculiarities  of 103 

breeding 104 

localities  for  rearing 106 

South-Down,  the,  history  of 106 

Cheviot,  the 109 

Long-wools,  the 110 

improvement  of  the  Bakewell-.  110 
improvement  of  Cotswold  and 

Lincolnshire 112 

peculiarities  of  the  Long-wools.  113 

importation  into  the  U.  States..  113 

breeding  sheep 113 

Winter  management 116 

sheep-barns  fiiid  sheds 116 

racks,  mangers,  and  troughs  ...  117 

food lis 

management  of  ewes,  yeaning. .  119 

management  of  lambs 119 

castrating  and  docking 120 

tagging  or  clatting 121 

Summer  management  and  food  . .  121 

washing 122 

shearing 124 

smearing  and  salving 125 

weaning 126 

drafting 126 

stall-feeding — management  on 

the  prairies 127 

Diseases 128 

diarrhoea  or  scours 129 

looseness  in  lambs,  dysentery..  130 

hoven,  braxy ." 130 

costiveness,   stretches,   poison, 

inflammation  of  lungs,  rot  ...  131 

foot-rot 132 

flies,  maggots,  gad-fly 133 

swollen  mouth,  foul  noses, weak- 
ness, scab 134 

ticks,  pelt-rot,  staggers  or  sturdy  135 

abortion,  garget,  bleeding 136 

wounds  137 

to  protect  from  wolves  and  foxes  138 

Shepherd's  dog 209 

Swine 192 

various  breeds 194 

breeding  and  rearing 198 

rearing    and    fattening,    large 

weights 199 

treatment  of  food 201 

products  of  the  carcass 202 

lard  oil,  how  made 203 

stearine  and  oleine 203 

curing  pork  and  hams 203 

Diseases 204 

coughs  and  inflammation  of  the 
lungs,  costiveness,  itch,  kid- 
ney-worm    205 

blind  staggers 206 

Wild  Boar 193 


DOMESTIC  ANIMALS. 


CHAPTER    I. 


INTRODUCTORY  REMARKS— GENERAL  PRINCIPIES  OF 
BREEDING,  NUTRITION,  MANAGEMENT,  &c. 

The  principal  domestic  animals  reared  for  economical  pm-- 
poses  in  the  United  States,  are  Horned  or  neat  cattle,  the 
Horse,  the  Mule,  Sheep,  and  Swine.  A  few  Asses  are  bred, 
but  for  no  other  object  than  to  keep  up  the  supply  of  jacks 
for  propagating  mules.  We  have  also  goats,  rabbits,  and  the 
house  domestics,  the  dog  and  cat ;  the  two  former,  only  in 
very  limited  numbers,  but  both  the  latter  much  beyond  our 
legitimate  wants.  There  have  been  a  few  specimens  of  the 
Alpaca  imported,  and  an  arrangement  is  now  in  progress  for 
the  introduction  of  a  flock  of  several  hundred,  which,  if  dis- 
tributed among  intelligent  and  wealthy  agriculturists,  as  pro- 
posed, will  test  their  value  for  increasing  our  agricultural 
resources.  We  shall  confine  ourselves  to  some  general  con- 
siderations, connected  with  the  first-mentioned  and  most  im- 
portant of  our  domestic  animals. 

Their  number  as  shown  by  the  agricultural  statistics  col- 
lected in  1839,  by  order  of  our  General  Government,  was 
15,000,000  neat  cattle ;  4,335,000  horses  and  mules,  (the 
number  of  each  not  being  specified  ;)  19,311,000  sheep  ;  and 
26,300,000  swine.  There  is  much  reason  to  question  the  entire 
accuracy  of  these  returns,  yet  there  is  doubtless  an  approxima- 
tion to  the  truth.  Sheep  have  greatly  increased  since  that 
period,  and  would  probably  number,  the  present  year,  (1848,) 
not  less  than  30,000,000  ;  and  if  our  own  manufactures  con- 
tinue to  thrive,  and  we  should  moreover  become  wool  exporters, 
of  which  there  is  now  a  reasonable  prospect,  an  accurate  re- 
tarn  for  1850,  will  undoubtedl}^  give  us  not  ^ess  than  33,000,000 
for  the  entire  Union.     There  has  been  a  i  eat  increase  in  the 


10  DOMESTIC    ANIMALS. 

value  of  tho  other  animals  enumerated,  but  not  in  a  ratio  cor- 
responding with  that  of  sheep.  This  is  not  only  manifest  in 
their  augmented  numbers,  but  in  the  gradual  and  steady  im- 
provement of  the  species. 

It  may  be  safely  predicted,  that  this  improvement  will  not 
only  be  sustained,  but  largely  increased  ;  for  there  are  some 
intelligent  and  spirited  breeders  to  be  found  in  every  section 
of  the  country,  whose  liberal  exertions  and  successful  examples 
are  doing  much  for  this  object.  Wherc/er  intelligence  and 
sound  judgment  are  to  be  found,  it  will  be  impossible  long  to 
resist  the  effects  of  a  comparison  between  animals,  which,  on 
an  equal  quantity  of  the  same  food,  with  the  same  attention 
and  in  the  same  time,  will  return  50,  20,  or  even  10  per  cent, 
more  in  their  intrinsic  value  or  marketable  pioduct,  than  the 
ordinary  class.  This  improvement  has  been,  relatively,  most 
conspicuous  in  the  Western  and  Southern  states  ;  not  that  the 
present  average  of  excellence  in  their  animals  surpasses,  or 
even  reaches  that  of  the  North  and  East ;  bui  the  latter  have 
long  been  pursuing  this  object,  with  more  or  less  energy,  and 
they  have  for  many  years  had  large  numbers  of  excellent 
specimens  of  each  variety  ;  Avhile  with  few  exceptions,  if  we 
exclude  the  blood-horse  or  racing  nag,  the  former  have,  till 
recently,  paid  comparatively  little  attention  to  the  improvement 
of  their  domestic  animals.  The  spirit  for  improvement  through 
extensive  sections,  is  now  awakened,  and  the  older  settled  por- 
tions of  the  country  may  hereafter  expect  competitors,  whose 
success  will  be  fully  commensurate  with  their  own.  Before 
going  into  the  management  of  the  different  varieties,  we  will 
give  some  general  principles  and  remarks  applicable  to  the 
treatment  of  all. 

The  purpose  for  which  animals  are  required,  should  be  first 
determined,  before  selecting  such  as  may  be  necessary  either 
for  breeding  or  use.  Throughout  the  Northeastern  states, 
cows  for  the  dairy,  oxen  for  the  yoke,  and  both  for  the  butcher, 
are  wanted.  In  much  of  the  West  and  South,  beef  alone  is 
the  principal  object ;  while  the  dairy  is  neglected,  and  the  work 
of  the  ox  is  seldom  relied  on,  except  for  occasional  drudgery. 

Sheep  may  be  wanted  almost  exclusively  for  the  fleece,  or 
for  the  fleece  and  heavy  mutton,  or  in  the  neighborhood  of 
markets,  for  large  early  lambs.  The  pastures  and  winter 
food,  chmate,  and  other  conditions,  present  additional  circum- 
stances, which  should  be  well  considered  before  determining 
on  the  particular  br'^ed,  either  of  cattle  or  sheep,  that  Avill  best 
promote  the  intereis    of  the  farmer. 


PRINCIPLES    OF    BREEDING.  11 

The  kind  of  work  for  which  the  horse  may  be  wanted,  whether 
as  a  roadster,  for  the  saddle,  as  a  heavy  team  horse,  or  the  horse 
of  all  work,  must  be  first  decided,  before  selecting  the  form  or 
character  of  the  animal. 

The  range  of  pig  excellence  is  more  circumscribed,  as  it  is 
onl}^  necessary  to  breed  such  as  will  yield  the  greatest  amount 
of  valuable  carcass,  within  the  shortest  time,  and  with  the  least 
expense. 

PRINCIPLES  OF  BREEDING. 

All  breeding  is  founded  on  the  principle,  that  like  begets  like. 
This  is,  however,  liable  to  some  exceptions,  and  is  much 
more  generally  true  when  breeding  dovjn  than  when  breeding 
up.  If  two  animals  (which  can  never  be  exactly  similar  in  all 
respects)  are  requisite  to  the  perpetuation  of  the  species,  it 
necessarily  results,  that  the  progeny  must  differ  in  a  more  or 
less  degree  from  each  parent.  With  wild  animals,  and  such 
of  the  domestic  as  are  allowed  to  propagate  without  the  inter- 
ference of  art,  and  whose  liabits,  treatment,  and  food  are 
nearly  similar  to  their  natural  condition,  the  change  through 
successive  generations  is  scarcely  perceptible.  It  is  only 
when  we  attempt  to  improve  their  good  qualities,  that  it  is 
essential  carefully  to  determine,  and  rigidly  to  apply,  what  are 
adopted  as  the  present  scientific  principles  of  breeding.  We 
cannot  beheve  that  v/e  have  penetrated  beyond  the  mere 
threshold  of  this  art.  Unless,  then,  we  launch  into  experi- 
ments, which  are  necessarily  attended  with  uncertainty,  our 
duty  will  be,  to  take  for  our  guide  the  most  successful  prac- 
tice of  modern  times,  until  further  discoveries  enable  us  to 
modify  or  add  to  such  as  are  already  known  and  adopted. 
We  may  assume,  then,  as  the  present  rules  for  this  art, 

1st.  That  the  animals  selected  for  breed,  should  imite  in 
themselves  all  the  good  qualities  we  wish  to  perpetuate  in  the 
offspring. 

2d.  These  qualities,  technically  called  points^  should  be  in- 
bred in  the  animals  as  far  as  practicable,  by  a  long  line  of 
descent  from  parents  similarly  constituted.  The  necessity  for 
this  rule  is  evident  from  the  fact,  that  in  mixing  different  spe- 
cies, and  especially  mongrels,  with  a  long-established  breed, 
the  latter  will  most  stx^^ngly  stamp  the  issue  with  its  own 
peculiarities.  This  is  forcibly  illustrated  in  the  case  of  the 
Devon  cattle,  an  ancient  race,  wh?se  color,  form,  and  charac- 
teristics are  strikingly  perpetuated,  sometimes  to  the  six  h  or 


12  DOMESTIC    ANIMALS. 

even  a  later  generation.  So  far  is  this  principle  carried  by 
many  experienced  breeders,  that  they  will  use  an  animal  of 
indifferent  external  appearance,  but  of  approved  descent,  (blood,) 
in  preference  to  a  decidedly  superior  one,  whose  pedigree  is 
imperfect. 

3d.  All  the  conditions  of  soil,  situation,  climate,  treatment, 
and  food,  should  be  favorable  to  the  object  sought. 

4th.  As  a  general  rule,  the  female  should  be  relatively  larger 
than  the  male.  This  gives  ample  room  for  the  perfect  devel- 
opment of  the  foetus,  easy  partmition,  and  a  large  supply  of 
milk  for  the  offspring,  at  a  period  in  its  existence,  when  food 
has  a  greater  influence  in  perfecting  character  and  form,  than 
at  any  subsequent  time. 

5th.  Exceptions  to  this  rule  may  be  made,  when  greater  size 
is  required  than  can  be  obtained  from  the  female,  and  espe- 
cially when  more  vigor  and  hardiness  of  constitution  are  de- 
sirable. For  this  purpose,  strong  masculine  development  in 
the  sire  is  proper,  and  if  otherwise  unattainable,  something  of 
coarseness  may  be  admitted,  as  this  may  be  afterwards  cor- 
rected, and  nothing  will  atone  for  want  of  constitution  and 
strength. 

6th.,  Pairing  should  be  with  a  strict  reference  to  correcting 
the  imperfections  of  one  animal,  by  a  corresponding  excellence 
in  the  other. 

7th.  Breeding  in-and-in,  or  propagating  from  animals  nearly 
allied,  may  be  tolerated  under  certain  circumstances,  though 
seldom  ;  and  only  in  extreme  cases  between  those  of  the  same 
generation,  as  brother  and  sister.  When  the  animal  possesses 
much  stamina  and  peculiar  merit,  which  it  is  desired  to  per- 
petuate in  the  breed,  it  may  be  done  either  in  the  ascending  or 
descending  line,  as  in  breeding  the  son  to  the  parent,  or  the 
parent  to  his  own  progeny.  This  has  been  practised  with  de- 
cided advantage,  and  in  some  cases  has  even  been  continued 
successively,  as  low  as  the  sixth  generation. 

8th.  It  is  alwaj^s  better  to  avoid  close  relationship,  by  the 
selection  of  equally  meritorious  stock-getters  of  the  same  breed, 
from  other  sources. 

9th.  Wholesome,  nutritious  food,  at  all  times  sufficient  to 
keep  the  animals  steadily  advancing,  should  be  provided,  but 
they  must  never  be  allowed  to  get  fat.  Of  the  two  evils^ 
starving  is  preferable  to  surfeit.  Careful  treatment,  and  the 
absence  of  disease,  must  be  always  fully  considered. 

10th.  Animals  should  never  be  allowed  to  breed  either  too 
early  or  too  late  ir  hfe.     These  periods  cannot  be  arbitrarily 


GENERAL  FORM  AND  CHARACTERISTICS.        13 

laid  down,  but  must  depend  on  their  time  of  matunty,  the 
longevity  of  the  breed,  and  the  stamina  of  the  individual. 

11th.  No  violent  cross,  or  mixing  of  distinct  breeds,  should 
ever  be  admitted  for  the  purposes  of  perpetuation,  as  of  cattle 
of  diverse  sizes ;  horses  of  unlike  characters  ;  the  Merino  and 
the  lono;-wools,  or  even  the  long^,  or  short,  and  the  middle-wools. 
For  carcass  and  constitution,  these  crosses  are  unexceptiona- 
ble ;  and  it  is  a  practice  very  common  in  this  country,  and 
judicious  enough  where  the  whole  produce  is  early  destined 
for  the  shambles.  But  when  the  progeny  are  designed  for 
breeders,  the  practice  should  be  branded  with  unqualified 
reprehension. 


GENERAL  FORM  AND  CHARACTERISTICS. 

Within  certain  limits,  these  may  be  reduced  to  a  common 
standard.  All  animals  should  have  a  good  head,  well  set  up  ; 
a  clean  fine  muzzle,  and  a  bright,  clear  and  full,  yet  per- 
fectly placid  eye.  With  the  exception  of  the  dog  and  cat, 
whose  original  nature  is  ferocity,  and  whose  Avhole  life,  un- 
less diverted  from  their  natural  instincts,  is  plunder  and 
prey  ;  and  the  jockey  racehorse,  which  is  required  to  take 
the  purse,  at  any  hazard  of  fife  or  limb  to  the  groom  ;  a  mild, 
quiet  eye  is  indispensable  to  the  profitable  use  of  the  domes- 
tic brute.  The  neck  should  be  well  formed,  not  too  long, 
tapering  to  its  junction  with  the  head,  and  gradually  enlarg- 
ing to  a  firm,  well-expanded  attachment  to  the  back,  shoulders, 
and  breast.  The  back  or  chine  should  be  short,  straight,  and 
broad  ;  the  ribs  springing  out  from  the  backbone  netirly  at 
right  angles,  giving  a  rounded  appearance  to  the  carcass, 
and  reaching  well  behind  to  a  close  proximity  to  the  hip ; 
tail  well  set  on,  and  full  at  its  junction  with  the  body,  yet 
gradually  tapering  to  fineness  ;  thighs,  fore-arms,  and  crops 
well  developed ;  projecting  breast  or  brisket ;  the  fore-legs 
straigjit,  and  hind  ones  properly  bent,  strong  and  full  where 
attached  to  the  carcass,  but  small  and  tapering  below ;  good 
and  sound  joints ;  dense,  strong  bones,  but  not  large  ;  plenty 
of  fine  muscle  in  the  right  places ;  and  hair  or  wool,  fine  and 
soft.  The  chest  in  all  animals  should  be  full,  for  it  will  be  in- 
variably found,  that  only  such  will  do  the  most  work,  or  fat- 
ten easiest  on  the  lea^,  i)od. 

2 


V4  DOMESTIC    ANIMALS. 


The  Lungs. 


From  the  last-mentioned  principle,  founded  on  long  ex- 
perience and  observation,  Cline  inferred,  and  he  has  laid  it 
down  as  an  incontrovertible  position,  that  the  lungs  should 
always  be  large ;  and  Youatt  expresses  the  same  opinion. 
This  is  undoubtedly  correct  as  to  worldng  beasts,  the  horse 
and  the  ox,  which  require  full  and  free  respiration,  to  enable 
them  to  sustain  great  muscular  efforts.  But  later  physiolo- 
gists have  assumed,  perhaps  from  closer  and  more  accurate 
observations,  that  the  fattening  propensity  is  in  the  ratio  of 
the  smallness  of  the  lungs.  Earl  Spencer  has  observed,  that 
this  is  fully  shown  in  the  pig,  the  sheep,  the  ox,  and  the 
horse,  whose  aptitude  to  fatten  and  smallness  of  lungs,  are  in 
the  order  enumerated. 

This  position  is  further  illustrated  by  the  different  breeds  of 
the  same  classes  of  animals.  The  Leicester  sheep  have 
smaller  lungs  than  the  South  Down;  and  it  has  been  found, 
that  a  number  of  the  former,  on  a  given  quantity  of  food, 
and  in  the  same  time,  reached  28  lbs.  a  quarter,  while  the 
South  Downs  with  a  greater  consumption  of  food,  attained  in 
the  same  period,  only  18  lbs.  The  Chinese  pigs  have  much 
smaller  lungs  than  the  Irish,  and  the  former  will  fatten  to  a 
given  weight,  on  a  much  less  quantity  of  food  than  the  latter. 
\Playfair.)  The  principle  would  seem  to  be  corroborated  by 
the  fact,  that  animals  generally  fatten  faster  in  proportion  to 
the  quantity  of  food  they  consume,  as  they  advance  towards 
a  certain  stage  of  maturity ;  during  all  Avhich  time,  the  secre- 
tion of  internal  fat  is  gradually  compressing  the  size,  by  re- 
ducing the  ruom  for  the  action  of  the  lunc{s.  Hence,  the 
advantage  of  carrying  the  fattening  beast  to  an  advanced 
point,  by  which  not  only  the  quality  of  carcass  is  improved, 
but  the  quantity  is  relatively  greater  for  the  amount  of  food 
consumed.  These  views  are  intimately  connected,  and  fully 
correspond,  with  the  principles  of 


RESPIRATION  IN  ANIMALS. 

From  careful  experiments,  it  has  been  found  that  all  ani- 
mals daily  consume  a  much  larger  quantity  of  food  than  the 
aggregate  of  what  may  have  been  retained  in  the  system, 
added  to  what  has  been  expelled  in  the  foeces  and  urine,  and 


RESPIRATION    IN    ANIMALS.  15 

vfhat  has  escaped  by  perspiration.  Boussingault,  who  com- 
bines the  characteristics  of  an  ingenious  chemist,  a  vigilant 
observer,  and  a  practical  agriculturist,  made  an  experiment 
with  a  '*  milch-cow  and  a  full-grown  horse,  which  were  placed 
in  stalls  so  contrived  that  the  droppings  and  the  urine  could 
be  collected  without  loss.  Before  being  made  the  subjects  of 
experiment,  the  animals  were  ballasted  or  fed  for  a  month 
with  the  same  ration  that  Avas  furnished  to  them,  during  the 
three  days  and  three  nights  which  they  passed  in  the  ex- 
perimental stalls.  During  the  month,  the  weight  of  the  ani- 
mals did  not  vary  sensibly,  a  circumstance  which  happily  en- 
ables us  to  assume  that  neither  did  the  weight  vary  durnig 
the  seventy-two  hours  when  they  were  under  especial  obser- 
vation. 

The  cow  was  foddered  with  after-math,  hay,  and  potatoes ; 
the  horse  with  the  same  hay  and  oats.  The  quantities  of 
forage  were  accurately  weighed,  and  their  precise  degree  of 
moistness  and  their  composition  were  determined  from  average 
samples.  The  water  drunk  was  measured,  its  sahne  and  earthy 
constituents  having  been  previously  ascertained.  The  excre- 
mentitious  matters  passed,  were  of  course  collected  with  the 
greatest  care ;  the  excrements,  the  urine,  and  the  milk  were 
weighed,  and  the  constitution  of  the  whole  estimated  from 
elementary  analyses  of  average  speclraens  of  each.  The  re- 
sults of  the  two  experiments  are  given  in  the  table  on  the  next 
page. 

The  oxygen  and  hydrogen  that  are  not  accounted  for  in 
the  sum  of  the  products  have  not  disappeared  in  the  precise 
proportions  requisite  to  form  water ;  the  excess  of  hydrogen 
amounts  to  as  many  as  from  13  to  15  dwts.  It  is  probable 
that  this  hydrogen  of  the  food  became  changed  into  water  by 
combining  dur.ng  respiration  with  the  oxygen  of  the  air." 


DOMESTIC    ANIMALS. 


FOOD  CONSUMED  BY  THE  HORSE  IN  24  HOURS. 


Weight  in 
tlie  wet 
Btate. 

Weight  in 
the  dry 
state. 

Elementar 

y  Matter  in 

the  Food. 

Forage. 

Carbon. 

Hjdrogeo. 

Oxygen. 

Azote. 

Palts  and 
Earths, 

ar.-.  :  : :  :  :  : 

Water 

lbs. 
20 
6 
43 

lbs.    OZ. 
17      4 
5       2 

lbs.   OZ. 
7     11 
2      7 

lb.  OZ  dwt 
0     10       7 
0      3     18 

lb.  OZ.  dwt. 
6       8       8 
1     10     14 

8      7      2 

lb.  OZ.  d-*t. 
0      3      2 

0        1         7 

... 

lb.  OZ.  Uwt. 
I  6  14 
0  2  10 
0      0      8 

Total 

69 

22      6 

10      6 

1       2       5 

0      4      9 

1      9     12 

PRODUCTS  VOIDED  B^ 

THE  HORSE  IN 

24  HOURS. 

Weight  in 
the  wet 
state. 

Weight  m 
the  dry 
state. 

Elementary  Matter  in  the  Products. 

Products. 

Ca-'bon. 

Hydrogen. 

Oxygen. 

Azote. 

Salts  and 
Earths. 

U.ine 

Excrements    .... 

lb.  cz.  dwt. 
3      6     15 

as     2     2 
n      8     17 
69      0      0 

lb.  OZ.  dwt 
9      9     l-l 
9      5      6 
10      3      0 
22      6      0 

lb.  OZ  dwi. 
0  3  10 
3  7  17 
3     11      7 

10      6      0 

lb.   oz.dwt. 
0      0      7 
0      5     15 

0  6      2 

1  2      5 

lb.  oz.dwt. 
0  1  2 
3      6     14 

ib.  OZ.  dwt. 
0  1  4 
0      2     10 

lb.  OZ.  dwt. 

0  3     10 

1  6     10 

Total 

Total  matter  oH 
the  food           S      • 

3  7  16 
8      7      2 

0  3  14 
0      4      9 

1  10  C 
1       9     IS 

Difference 

27      3      3 

12      3      0 

6      6     13 

0      8      3     4     11      6 

0      0    15 

0      0      8 

WATER  CONSUMED  BY  THE  HORSE 

IN   24   HOURS. 


WATER  VOIDED   B\    THE  HORSE 

IN    24   HOURS. 


With  the  hay 

With  the  oats 

. 

lbs. 

2 

0 
35 
38 

OZ. 

3 
14 
3 

4 

With  the  urine 

With  the  excrements 

Total  voided 

Water  consumed 

lbs. 
2 

Is" 

38 

OZ. 

6 
8 

Total  consumed    .... 

IT 
4 

Water  exhaled  by  pulmonary  a 

nd  cutanoriiis 

transp 

ration 

12 

6 

FOOD  CONSUMED   BY  THE  COW  IN  i 

J4  HOURS. 

Weight  in 
the  wet 

stale. 

Weight  in 
llie  dry 
Elate. 

Elementary  Matter  in  the  Food. 

Fodder. 

Carbon. 

Hydrogen. 

Ib.  cz   dwt. 
0       7     15 
0     U       7 

Oxygen. 

Azote. 

Salts  and 
Earihs. 

lb.  OZ.  dwt. 
40     2      5 
20     1       2 
160     0      0 
220    3      7 

lb.  OZ.  dwt. 
11       2       1 
16     11       0 

lb.  oz.dwt. 
4     11       2 
7     11      11 

Ib.  OZ  dwt. 

4  10     17 

5  10     17 

lb.   OZ.  dwt. 
0      1     12 
0      4     17 

lb.  OZ.  dwt. 
0      6     13 

After-math  hay  . 
Water  .     .     .     . 

• 

1  8  6 
0      1     12 

Total.     .     .    . 

28       1       1 

12     10     13 

1      7      2 

10      9     14 

0      6      9 

2      4     11 

PRODUCTS  VOIDED  BY  THE  COW  IN  24  HOURS, 


Excrements 
Urine  ,  , 
Milk,    .     , 


Total 

"      matter  of  food 
Difference 


Weight  in 
the  wet 

Btate. 


lb. 

iz.  d 

wt. 

76 

1 

9 

21 

11 

12 

22 

10 

10 

120 

)  1 

11 

L'20 

3 

7 

Weight  in 
the  dry 
state. 

Ib. 
10 
2 

6  17 
1       0 

28 

4  9 
1       1 

11 

8     12 

Elementary  Matter  in  the  Product*. 


Carbon.     Hydrogen.     Oxygen.        Azote. 


lb. 
4 
0 

7  0 

8  7 
8      3 

6 
12 

11     10 
10     13 

lb. 

0 
0 
0 

OZ.  dwt. 
6  13 
0     16 

0 

10  12 
7       2 

Salts  and 
Earths. 


1       3      8 

1      0      6 
0      1     16 


WATER  CONSUMED  BY  THE  COW 

IN   24    HOURS. 


With  th}  potatoes 
With  the  hay  .  . 
Taken  as  drnik     . 


Total  consumed 


WATER  VOIDED  BY  THE  COW 

IN    24   HOURS. 


With  the  excrements 
With  the  urine  .  , 
With  the  milk,     .     . 


Total  voided     . 
Water  consumed 


Water  pasud  off  by  pulmonary  and  cutanooui  tranapiratiou 


lbs. 

OZ 

53 

10 

15 

14 

16 

a 

85 

11 

158 

5 

72 

« 

,     THE    EFFECTS    OF    RESPIRATION.  17 

Wc  here  perceive  a  large  loss  of  water,  carbon,  hydrogen, 
&c.  Nearly  all  this  loss  of  carbon  and  hydrogen  escaped  by 
respiration,  while  most  of  the  water,  oxygen,  nitrogen,  and 
sahs,  passed  off  in  perspiration.  In  further  illustration  of  the 
subject  of  respiration,  Liebig  ssljs,  "  from  the  accurate  deter- 
mination of  the  quantity  of  carbon  daily  taken  into  the  system 
in  .the  food,  as  well  as  of  that  proportion  of  it  which  passes  out 
of  the  body  in  the  fceces  and  urine,  unhurned,  that  is,  in  some 
form  uncombined  with  oxygen,  it  appears  that  an  adult  taking 
moderate  exercise,  consumes  13.9  oz.  of  carbon  daily."  The 
foregoing  are  facts  in  the  animal  economy,  capable  of  vast 
practical  bearing  in  the  management  of  our  domestic  ani- 
mals. But  before  following  out  these  principles  to  their  ap- 
pHcation,  let  us  briefly  examine 

The  Effects  of  Respiration. 

We  have  seen  from  the  experiment  of  Boussingault,  that 
there  is  a  loss  of  6  lbs.  6  oz.  of  carbon,  and  8  oz.  3  dwt.  of 
hydrogen  in  the  food  of  the  horse,  and  something  less  in  that 
of  the  cow,  every  24  hours,  which  has  not  been  left  in  the 
system,  nor  has  it  escaped  by  the  evacuations.  What  has 
become  of  so  large  an  amount  of  solid  matter  ?  It  has  escaped 
through  the  lungs  and  been  converted  into  air.  The  carbon 
and  hydrogen  of  the  food  have  undergone  those  various  trans- 
formations which  are  peculiar  to  the  animal  economy,  diges- 
tion, assimilation,  &c.,  which  it  is  not  necessary,  nor  will  our 
limits  permit  us  here  to  explain ;  and  they  appear  at  last  in 
the  veinous  blood,  which  in  the  course  of  its  circulation  is 
brought  into  the  cells  of  the  lungs.  The  air  inhaled  is  sent 
through  every  part  of  their  innumerable  meshes,  and  is  there 
separated  from  the  blood,  only  by  the  dehcate  tissues  or  mem- 
branes which  enclose  it.  A  portion  of  the  carbon  and  hydro- 
gen escapes  from  the  blood  into  the  air-cells,  and  at  the  instant 
of  their  contact  with  the  ai]-,  they  affect  a  chemical  union  with 
its  oxygen,  forming  carbonic  acid  and  the  vapor  of  water, 
which  is  then  expired,  and  a  fresh  supply  of  oxygen  is  inhaled. 
This  operation  is  again  repeated,  through  every  successive 
moment  of  animal  existence. 

Besides  other  purposes  which  it  is  probably  designed  to 
subserve,  but  which  have  hitherto  eluded  the  keenest  research 
of  chemical  physiology,  one  ob\dous  result  of  respiration  is, 
the  elevation  of  the  temperature  of  the  animal  system.  By 
the  ever-operating  laws  of  nature,  this  chemical  union  of  two 

2^ 


18  DOMESTIC    ANIMALS. 

bodies  in  the  formation  of  a  third,  disengages  latent  heat, 
which  taking  place  in  contact  with  the  blood,  is  by  it  difiused 
throughout  the  whole  frame.  The  effect  is  precisely  analogous 
to  the  combustion  of  fuel,  oils,  &c.,  in  the  open  air. 

Perspiration 

Is  the  counteracting  agent  which  modifies  this  result,  and 
prevents  the  injurious  effects,  which,  under  exposure  to  great 
external  heat,  would  ensure  certain  destruction.  And  this  too, 
it  will  have  been  seen,  is  provided  at  the  expense  of  the  animal 
food.  When  from  excessive  heat,  caused  by  violent  exercise 
or  otherwise,  by  which  respiration  is  accelerated  and  the  ani- 
mal temperature  becomes  elevated,  the  papillae  of  the  skin 
pour  the  limpid  fluid  through  their  innumerable  ducts,  which 
in  its  conversion  into  vapor,  seize  upon  the  animal  heat  and 
remove  it  from  the  system,  producing  that  dehcious  coolness 
so  grateful  to  the  laboring  man  and  beast  in  a  sultry  summer's 
day.  These  two  opposing  principles,  like  the  antagonistic 
operations  of  the  regulator  in  mechanics,  keep  up  a  perfect 
balance  in  the  vital  machine,  and  enable  that  entire  division  of 
the  animal  creation,  distinguished  as  warm-blooded,  including 
man  and  the  brute,  all  the  feathered  tribes,  the  whale,  the 
seal,  the  walrus,  (fee,  to  maintain  an  equilibrium  of  temperature, 
whether  under  the  equator  or  the  poles ;  on  the  peaks  of 
Chimborazo,  the  burning  sands  of  Zahara,  or  plunged  in  the 
depths  of  the  Arctic  Ocean. 

The  connection  between  the  size  of  the  kmgs,  and  the  apti- 
tude of  animals  to  fatten,  will  be  more  apparent  from  the  fact, 
that  the  carbon  and  hydrogen  which  are  abstracted,  constitute 
two  of  the  only  three  elements  of  fat.  The  larger  size,  the 
fuller  play,  and  the  greater  activity  of  the  lungs,  by  exhausting 
more  of  the  materials  of  fat,  must  necessaiily  diminish  its 
formation  in  the  animal  system ;  unless  it  can  be  shown,  which 
has  never  yet  been  done,  that  the  removal  of  a  portion  of  the 
fat-forming  principles  accelerates  the  assimilation  of  the  re- 
mainder. 

The  Food  whicli  supplies  Respiration. 

This,  in  the  herbiverous  animals,  after  they  are  deprived  of 
the  milk,  which  furnishes  it  in  abundance,  m  the  starch,  gum, 
sugar,  vegetable  fats,  and  oils  that  exist  in  the  vegetables, 
grain,  and  roots  whicli  they  consume;  and  in  certain  cases 


ClflCDMSTANCEd    WHICH    AUGMENT    RESPIRATION.       19 

^  where  there  is  a  deficiency  of  other  food,  it  is  sparingly  fur- 
nished in  woody  and  cellular  fibre.  All  these  substances  con- 
stitute the  principal  part  of  dry  vegetable  food,  and  are  made 
up  of  three  elements,  lohich  in  starch,  gum,  cane-sugar,  and 
cellulur  fibre,  exist  in  precisely  the  sa.me  proportions,  viz:  44  per 
cent,  of  carbon,  6.2  of  hydrogen,  and  49.8  of  oxygen. 

Grape  sugar,  woody  fibre,  and  vegetable  and  animal  fats 
and  oils  are  made  up  of  the  same  elements,  but  in  different 
proportions,  the  last  containing  much  more  carbon  and  hydro- 
gen than  those  above  specified.  In  the  fattening  animals,  it  is 
supposed  the  vegetable  fats  and  oils  are  immediately  trans- 
ferred to  the  fat  cells,  undergoing  only  such  shght  modifica- 
tion as  perfectly  adapts  them  to  the  animal  economy,  while 
respiration  is  supplied  by  the  other  enumerated  vegetable 
matters.  If  these  last  are  taken  into  the  stomach  beyond  the 
necessary  demand  for  its  object,  they  too  are  converted  by  the 
animal  functions  into  fat,  and  are  stored  up  in  the  system  for 
future  use.  But  if  the  supply  of  the  latter  is  insufficient  for 
respiration,  it  first  appropriates  the  vegetable  fat  contained  in 
the  food ;  if  this  is  deficient,  it  draws  on  the  accumulated 
stores  of  animal  fat  already  secreted  in  the  system,  and  when 
these  too  are  exhausted,  it  seizes  upon  what  is  contained  in 
the  tilssues  and  muscle.  When  the  animal  commences  drawing 
npon  its  own  resources  for  the  support  of  its  vital  functions, 
deterioration  begins ;  and  if  long  continued,  great  emaciation 
succeeds,  which  is  soon  followed  by  starvation  and  death. 

The  carniverous  animals  are  furnished  with  their  respiratory 
excretions,  from  the  animal  fat  and  fibre  which  exist  in  their 
food,  and  which  the  herbivorse  had  previously  abstracted  from 
the  vegetable  creation. 

Circumstances  which  augment  Respiration. 

These  are,  exercise,  cold,  and  an  abundant  supply  of  food. 
Exercise,  besides  exhausting  the  materials  of  fat,  produces  a 
waste  of  fibre  and  tissue,  the  muscular  and  nitrogenized  parts 
of  the  animal  system  ;  and  it  is  obvious  from  the  foregoing 
principles,  that  cold  requires  a  corresponding  demand  for  car- 
bon and  hydrogen  to  keep  up  the  vital  warmth.  The  con- 
sumption of  food  to  the  fullest  extent  required  for  invigorating 
the  frame,  creates  a  desire  for  activity,  and  it  insensibly  indu- 
ces full  respiration.  The  well-fed,  active  man,  unconsciously 
draws  a  full,  strong  breath ;  while  the  abstemious  and  the 
feeble,  unwittingly  use  it  daintily,  as  if  it  were  a  choice  conj- 


20  D03IESTIC  ANIMALS. 

modity  not  to  be  lavishly  expended.  If  the  first  be  observed 
when  sleep  has  effectually  arrested  volition,  the  expanded 
chest  will  be  seen,  heaving  with  the  long-drawn,  sonorous 
breath ;  while  that  of  the  latter  will  exhibit  the  gentle  repose 
of  the  infant  on  its  mother's  breast. 

The  diffei-ence  between  the  food  of  the  inhabitants  of  the 
polar  and  equatorial  regions,  is  strikingly  illustrative  of  the 
demands  both  for  breathing  and  perspiration.  The  latter  are 
almost  destitute  of  clothing,  and  subsist  on  their  light,  juicy, 
tropical  fruits,  which  contain  scarcely  12  per  cent,  of  carbon, 
yet  furnish  all  the  elements  for  abundant  perspiration ;  while 
the  former  are  imbedded  in  furs,  and  devour  gallons  of  train 
oil  or  its  equivalent  of  fat,  which  contains  nearly  80  per  cent, 
of  carbon,  that  is  burnt  up  in  respiration  to  maintain  a  neces- 
sary warmth. 

The  bear  retires  to  his  den  in  the  beginning  of  winter,  load- 
ed with  fat,  which  he  has  accumulated  from  the  rich,  oily 
mast  abounding  in  the  woods  in  autumn.  There  he  lies  for 
months,  snugly  coiled  and  perfectly  dormant ;  the  thickness 
of  his  shaggy  coat,  his  dr}^  bed  of  leaves,  and  well-protected 
den,  effectually  guarding  him  from  cold,  which  in  addition  to 
his  want  of  exercise,  draw  slightly  upon  respiration  to  keep  up 
the  vital  heat.  When  the  stores  of  carbon  and  hydrogen  con- 
tained in  the  fat  are  expended,  his  hunger  and  cold  compel 
him  to  leave  his  winter-quarters,  again  to  wander  in  pursuit 
of  food. 

Many  of  the  swallow  tribes,  in  like  manner,  hybernate  in 
large  hollow  trees,  and  for  months  eke  out  a  torpid,  scarcely 
perceptible  existence,  independent  of  food.  Activity  and  full 
respiration,  on  the  return  of  spring,  demand  a  support,  which 
is  furnished  in  the  myriads  of  flies  they  daily  consume.  The 
toad  and  frog  have  repeatedly  been  found  in  a  torpid  state, 
imbedded  in  limestones,  sandstones,  and  the  breccias,  where 
they  were  probably  imprisoned  for  thousands  of  years  without 
a  morsel  of  food;  yet  when  exposed  to  the  warmth  of  the 
vital  air  and  the  stimulus  of  its  oxygen,  they  have  manifested 
all  the  activity  of  their  species.  This  they  are  enabled  to 
sustain  only  by  an  enormous  consumption  of  insects. 

Dr.  Playfair  states,  that  in  an  experiment  made  by  Lord 
Ducie,  100  sheep  were  placed  in  a  shed,  and  ate  20  pounds  of 
Swedes  turnips  each  per  day  ;  another  100  were  placed  in  the 
open  air,  and  ate  25  pounds  per  day ;  yet  the  former,  which 
had  one-fifth  less  food,  weighed,  after  a  few  weeks,  three 
pounds  more  per  head  than  the  latter.    He  then  fed  five  sht>-.p 


THE  FEEDING  OF   ANIMALS.  21 

in  the  open  air,  between  tlie  21st  November  and  1st  Decem- 
ber. They  consumed  90  pounds  of  food  per  day,  the  tem- 
perature being  at  44°,  and  at  the  end  of  this  time,  they 
weighed  two  pounds  less  than  when  first  exposed.  Five  sheep 
were  then  placed  imder  a  shed,  and  allowed  to  run  about  in  a 
temperature  of  49°.  At  first  they  consumed  82  pounds  per 
day ;  then  70  pounds,  and  at  the  end  of  the  time  they  had 
gained  23  pounds.  Again,  five  sheep  were  placed  under  a 
shed  as  before,  and  not  allowed  to  take  any  exercise.  They 
ate  at  first,  64  pounds  of  food  per  day,  then  58  pounds,  and 
increased  in  weight  30  pounds.  Lastly,  five  sheep  were  kept, 
quiet  and  covered,  and  in  the  dark.  They  ate  35  pounds  per 
day,  and  increased  eight  pounds. 

Mr.  Childers  states,  that  80  Leicester  sheep  in  the  open 
field,  consumed  50  baskets  of  cut  turnips  per  day,  besides  oil- 
cake. On  putting  them  in  a  shed,  they  were  immediately  able 
to  consume  only  30  baskets,  and  soon  after  but  25,  being  only 
half  the  quantity  required  before,  and  yet  they  fattened  as 
rapidly  as  when  eating  the  largest  quantity.  The  minimum  of 
food,  then,  required  for  the  support  of  animals,  is  attained 
when  closely  confined  in  a  warm,  dark  shelter ;  and  the  maxi- 
mum, when  running  at  large,  exposed  to  all  weathers. 

THE  FEEDING  OF  ANIMALS. 

This  should  be  regulated  by  a  variety  of  considerations. 
The  young  which  may  be  destined  for  matmity,  should  be 
supplied  with  milk  from  the  dam  until  weaning-time.  No 
food  can  be  substituted  for  the  well-filled  udder  of  the  parent, 
which  is  so  safe,  healthful,  and  nutritious.  If  from  any  cause 
there  is  deficiency  or  total  privation,  it  must  be  made  up  by 
that  kind  of  food,  meal-gruel,  &c.,  which,  in  its  composition, 
approaches  nearest  in  quality  to  the  milk.  At  a  more  ad- 
vanced age,  or  the  time  for  weaning,  grass,  hay,  roots,  or  grain, 
may  be  substituted,  in  quantities  sufficient  to  maintain  a  steady 
but  not  a  forced  growth.  Stuffing  can  only  be  tolerated  in  an- 
imals which  are  speedily  destined  for  the  slaughter.  Alter- 
nately improving  and  falling  back,  is  injurious  to  all  stock. 
An  animal  should  never  he  fat  hut  once.  Especially  is  high 
feeding  bad  for  breeding  animals.  Much  as  starving  is  to  be 
deprecated,  the  prejudicial  effects  of  repletion  are  still  greater. 
The  calf  or  lamb  intended  for  the  butcher,  may  be  pushed  for- 
ward with  all  possible  rapidity.  Horses  or  colts  should  nevei 
exceed  a  good  working  or  breeding  condition. 


22  DOMESTIC    ANIMALS. 


Purposes  fulfilled  by  different  Rinds  of  Food. 

The  objects  designed  to  be  answered  by  food,  are  to  a  cer- 
tain extent  the  same.  All  food  is  intended  to  meet  the  de- 
mands of  respiration  and  nutrition,  and  fattening  to  a  greater 
or  less  degree.  But  some  are  better  suited  to  one  object  than 
others,  and  it  is  for  the  intelligent  farmer  to  select  such  as 
■will  most  effectually  accomplish  his  particular  purposes. 

The  very  young  animal  reqmres  large  quantities  of  the  phos- 
phate of  lime  foi'the  formation  of  bone  ;  and  this  is  yielded  in 
the  milk  in  larger  proportions  than  from  any  other  food.  The 
growing  animal  wants  bone,  muscle,  and  a  certain  amount  of 
fat,  and  these  are  procured  from  the  grasses,  roots,  and  grain ; 
from  the  former  when  fed  alone,  and  from  the  two  latter  when 
mixed  with  hay  or  grass. 

Horses,  cattle,  and  sheep  need  hay  to  qualify  the  too  wa- 
tery nature  of  the  roots,  and  the  too  condensed  nutritiveness. 
of  the  grain.  Animals  that  are  prepaiing  for  the  shambles, 
require  vegetable  oils  or  fat,  starcli,  sugar,  or  gum.  The  first 
is  contained  in  great  abundance  in  flax  and  cotton-seed,  the 
sun-flower,  and  many  other  of  the  mucilaginous  seeds.  Indian 
corn  is  the  most  fattening  grain.  The  potato  contains  the 
greatest  proportion  of  starch,  and  the  sugar-beet  has  large 
quantities  of  sugar,  and  both  consequently  are  good  for  stall- 
feeding.  The  ripe  sugar-cane  is  perhaps  the  most  fattening  of 
vegetables,  if  we  except  the  oily  seeds  and  grain.  The  Swedes 
turnip  is  a  good  food  to  commence  with  fattening  cattle  and 
sheep ;  but  where  great  ripeness  in  animals  is  desired,  they 
should  be  followed  with  beets,  carrots  or  potatoes,  and  grain. 

The  table  of  the  average  composition  of  the  different  crops, 
which  we  subjoin  from  Johnston,  shows  the  comparative  qual- 
ities of  various  kinds  of  food,  and  it  will  be  found  a  valuable 
reference  for  their  nutritive  and  fpttening  qualities.  He  says, 
*'  In  drawing  up  this  table,  I  have  adopted  the  proportions  of 
gluten,  for  the  most  part,  from  Boussingault.  Some  of  them, 
however,  appear  to  be  very  doubtful.  The  proportions  of  fatty 
matter  are  also  very  uncertain.  With  a  few  exceptions,  those 
above  given  have  been  taken  from  Sprengel,  and  they  are,  in 
general,  stated  considerably  too  low.  It  is  an  interesting  fact, 
that  the  proportion  of  fatty  matter  in  and  immediately  under 
the  husk  of  the  grains  of  corn,  is  generally  much  greater  than 
in  the  substance  of  the  corn  itself.  Thus  I  have  found  the 
pollard  of  wheat  to  yield  more  than  twice  as  much  oil  as  the 


OF  DIFFERENT   KINtS   OF   FOOD, 


23 


fine  flour  obtained  from  the  same  sample  of  grain.  The  four 
portions  separated  by  the  miller  from  a  superior  sample  of 
wheat  grown  in  the  neighborhood  of  Durham,  gave  of  oil  re- 
spectively :  fine  flour,  1'5  per  cent. ;  pollard,  2'4  ;  boxings,  3"6  ; 
and  bran,  3 '3  per  cent.  Dumas  states  that  the  husk  of  oats 
sometimes  yields  as  much  as  five  or  six  per  cent,  of  oil."  The 
columns  under  starch,  (fee,  and  fatty  matter,  denote  the  value 
for  respiration  or  sustaining  life,  and  the  fattening  qualities ; 
that  under  gluten,  the  capacity  for  yielding  muscle  and  sup- 
porting labor ;  and  saline  matter  indicates  something  of  the 
proportions  which  are  capable  of  being  converted  into  bones. 


Husk  or 

Starch, 

Gluten,  al- 

V/ater. 

woody 

gum,  and 

bumen,  le- 

Fatty 

Saline 

fibre; 

sugar. 

gumen,  &.C. 

matte'r. 

matter 

Wheat,     .     . 

.  16 

15 

55 

10  to  15 

2  to  4  J. 

2-0 

Barley,     .     . 

.  15 

15 

60 

12? 

2-5  J. 

20 

Oats,    .     .     . 

.  16 

20 

50 

14-5? 

5-6  J. 

3-5 

Rye,     .     .     . 

.  12 

10 

60 

14-5 

3-0 

1-0 

Indian  corn. 

.  14 

15? 

50 

12  0 

5to9  D 

1-5 

Buckwheat^ 

.  16? 

25? 

50 

14-5 

0-4? 

1-5 

Beans,      . 

.  16 

10 

40 

28-0 

2  + 

3-0 

Peas,   .     .     . 

.  13 

8 

50 

24-0 

2-8? 

2-8 

Potatoes, 

.  75? 

5? 

12? 

2-25 

0-3 

0-8  to  1 

Turnips,  .     . 

.  85 

3 

10 

1-2 

? 

0-8  to  1 

Carrots,    .     . 

.  85 

3 

10 

2-0 

0-4 

1-0 

Meadow  hay, 

.  14 

30 

40 

7-1 

2  to  5  D. 

5  to  10 

Clover  hay, 

.  14 

25 

40 

9-3 

3-0 

9 

Pea  straw,    . 

10  to  15 

25 

45 

12-3 

1-5 

5 

Oat       do.     . 

.  12 

45 

35 

1-3 

0-8 

6 

Wheat  do.     . 

12  to  15 

50 

30 

1-3 

0-5 

5 

Barley  do.     . 

.  do. 

50 

30 

1-3 

0-8 

5 

Rye      do.     . 

.  do. 

45 

38 

1-3 

0-5 

3 

Indian  corn  do.    12 

25 

52 

3-0 

1-7 

4 

This  table,  it  will  be  perceived,  is  far  from  settling  the 
precise  relative  value  of  the  different  enumerated  articles.  An 
absolute,  unchanging  value  can  never  be  assumed  of  any 
one  substance,  as  the  quality  of  each  must  diff"er  with  the 
particular  variety,  the  soil  upon  which  it  is  grown,  the  charac- 
ter of  the  season,  the  manner  of  curing,  and  other  circum- 
stances. An  approximate  relative  value  :s  all  that  can  be  ex- 
pected, and  this  we  may  hope  ere  long  to  obtain,  from  the 
spirit  of  analytical  research,  which  is  now  developed  and  ir. 
successful  progress.  More  especially  do  we  need  these  inves- 
tigations with  American  products,  some  of  which  are  but  par- 
tially cultivated  in  Europe,  whence  we  derive  most  of  oui 
aualyses.     And  ranny  which  are  there  reared,  differ  widely 


24  DOMESTIC    ANIMALS. 

from  those  produced  here,  as  these  also  difiFer  from  each 
other.  What,  for  instance,  is  the  character  of  meadow  hay  ?■ 
We  know  that  this  varies  as  four  to  one,  according  to  the 
particular  kinds  grown ;  and  our  Indian  corn  has  certainly  a 
less  range  than  from  five  to  nine. 


The  Changes  in  the  Food  of  Animals. 

Potatoes,  when  fii^st  ripe,  are  estimated  to  be  worth,  for 
feeding  purposes,  nearly  twice  as  much  as  when  old ;  and  the 
relative  value  of  the  different  kinds,  varies  greatly  at  the 
same  age  and  under  similar  conditions  of  growth.  Perrault 
ascertained  by  careful  experiment,  that  hay,  clover,  and  lucerne 
lost  much  of  their  nutritive  qualities  by  drying,  and  ia  lucerne 
this  loss  amounted  to  about  thirty-five  per  cent.  This  is 
an  important  consideration  in  the  feeding  of  green  and  dry 
forage.  Oats  are  among  the  best  feed,  both  for  young  and 
working  animals ;  but  it  has  been  found  that  they  are  greatly 
improved  for  the  latter,  and  perhaps  for  both,  by  allowing 
the  new  crop  to  remain  till  the  latter  part  of  winter,  before 
feeding. 

The  improvement  by  steaming  and  cooking  food,  is  seldom 
sufficiently  appreciated.  Food  properly  managed,  can  never 
be  made  worse  by  cooking  for  any  stock ;  although  it  has  not 
been  considered  so  essential  for  working,  and  generally,  for 
ruminating  animals,  as  for  swine,  and  such  as  were  stall- 
feeding.  But  the  alteration  produced  in  cooking,  by  fittmg  it 
for  a  more  ready  assimilation,  must,  as  a  general  rule,  add 
much  to  the  value  of  the  food,  and  the  rapid  improvement  of 
the  animal. 

The  efi"ect  of  slight  fermentation,  or  souring  the  food,  pro- 
duces the  same  result.  Animals  accustomed  to  this  acid  food, 
will  reject  what  is  unprepared  when  they  can  get  at  the 
former ;  and  we  have  no  doubt,  from  our  own  experience,  that 
there  is  a  saving  in  thus  preparing  it,  from  20  to  40  per  cent. 
A  mixture  of  food  should  be  supplied  to  all  animals.  Like 
man,  they  tire  of  any  constant  aliment.  For  such,  especially, 
as  are  fattening,  and  which  it  is  desirable  to  mature  with  the 
greatest  rapidity,  a  careful  indulgence  of  their  appetite  should 
be  studied.  They  should  be  provided  with  whatever  they 
most  crave,  if  it  be  adapted  to  the  secretion  of  fat.  Cutting, 
crushing,  and  grinding  the  food ;  cooking,  souring,  and  mix- 
ihrr  it,  are  each  by  themselves  an  improvement  for  feeding ; 


THE    PROFIT    OF    FEEDING..  25 

and  frequently  two  or  more  of  these  prepaiations  combined, 
are  of  great  utility  in  effecting  the  object  proposed. 

The  Profit  of  Feeding. 

It  is  evident,  that  this  consists  in  a  valuable  return  from 
the  animal  of  the  food  consumed.  In  the  horse,  this  can 
only  be  received  in  labor  or  breeding ;  in  the  ox,  from  labor 
and  flesh ;  in  the  cow,  from  the  milk,  the  flesh,  and  her 
young.  In  the  sheep,  it  may  be  returned  in  its  fleece,  its 
carcass,  or  its  progeny ;  and  in  the  swine  only  by  its  progeny 
and  flesh.  The  manure  we  expect  from  all ;  and  if  this  be 
not  secured  and  judiciously  used,  few  animals  about  the  farm 
will  be  found  to  yield  a  satisfactory  profit  for  their  food  and 
attention ;  though  it  is  evident,  it  should  form  but  a  small 
part  of  the  return  looked  for. 

Animals  are  only  profitable  to  the  farmer,  when  they  yield 
a  daily  income,  as  in  their  milk  or  labor ;  or  annually,  by  their 
young  or  fleece ;  unless  it  be  m  a  course-  of  regular  improve- 
ment, either  in  their  ordinary  growth  or  preparation  for  the 
butcher.  The  animal  must  consume  a  certain  amount  of  food 
merely  to  keep  up  its  stationary  condition,  and  to  supply  the 
materials  for  waste,  respiration,  perspiration,  and  the  evacu- 
ations. These  must  first  be  provided  for  in  all  cases,  before 
the  farmer  can  expect  any  thing  for  the  food. 

Frequent  observation  has  shown,  that  an  ox  will  consume 
about  two  per  cent,  of  his  weight  of  hay  per  day,  to  maintain 
his  condition.  If  put  to  moderate  labor,  an  increase  of  this 
quantity  to  three  per  cent.,  will  enable  him  to  perform  his 
work,  and  still  maintain  his  flesh.  If  to  be  fattened,  he  re- 
quires ateout  4-1-  per  cent,  of  his  weight  daily,  in  nutritious 
food.  A  cow  to  remain  stationary  and  give^no  milk,  eats  two 
per  cent,  of  her  weight  daily ;  and  if  in  milk,  she  will  consume 
three  per  cent.  If  these  statements  are  correct,  which  it  is 
certain  they  are  in  piinciple,  though  they  may  not  be  entirely 
in  degree,  it  will  require  the  same  food  to  keep  three  yoke  of 
cattle  in  idleness,  as  two  at  work ;  and  the  food  of  every  two 
that  are  idle,  will  nearly  support  one  under  the  most  rapid 
condition  of  fatting.  Two  cows  may  be  kept  in  milk,  with  the 
same  feed  that  will  keep  three  without. 

No  practice  is  more  impolitic,  than  barely  to  sustain  the 
stock  through  the  winter,  or  a  part  of  the  year,  as  is  the  case 
in  too  many  instances,  and  allow  them  to  improve  only  when 
tuTied  on  grass  in  summer.     Besides  subjecting  them  to  the 

3 


26  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS. 

risk  of  disease,  consequent  upon  their  privation  )f  food,  nearly- 
half  the  year  is  lost  in  their  use,  or  in  maturing  them  for  prof- 
itable disposal ;  when  if  one-third  of  the  stock  had  been  sold, 
the  remainder  would  have  been  kept  in  a  rapidly  improving  con- 
dition, and  at  three  years  of  age,  they  would  probably  be  of 
equal  value,  as  otherwise  at  five  or  six.  It  is  true  that  breed 
has  much  to  do  with  this  rapid  advancement,  but  breed  is 
useless  without  food  to  develop  and  mature  it. 


CHAPTER    II. 

NEAT  OR  HORNED  CATTLE. 

The  value  of  our  neat  cattle  exceeds  that  of  any  other  of 
the  domestic  animals  in  the  United  States.  They  are  as  widely 
disseminated,  and  more  generally  useful.  Like  sheep  and  all 
our  domestic  brutes,  they  have  been  so  long  and  so  entirely 
subject  to  the  control  of  man,  that  their  original  type  is  un- 
known. They  have  been  allowed  entire  freedom  from  all  hu- 
man direction  or  restraint  for  hundreds  of  years,  on  the  bound- 
less pampas  of  South  'America,  California,  and  elsewhere ; 
but  when  permitted  to  resume  that  natural  condition,  by  which 
both  plants  and  animals  approximate  to  the  character  of  their 
original  head,  they  have  scarcely  deviated  in  any  respect, 
from  the-  domestic  herds  from  which  they  are  descended. 
From  this  it  may  be  inferred,  that  our  present  races  do  not 
differ,  in  any  of  their  essential  features  and  characteristics, 
from  the  original  stock. 

Various  Domestic  Breeds. 

Cultivation,  feed,  and  climate,  have  much  to  do  in  deter- 
mining the  form,  size,  and  character  of  cattle.  In  Lithuania, 
cattle  attain  an  immense  size,  with  but  moderate  pretensions 
to  general  excellence,  while  the  Irish  Kerry  and  Scotch 
Grampian  cows  but  httle  exceed  the  largest  sheep  ;  yet  the 
last  are  compact  and  well-made,  and  yield  a  good  return  for 
the  food  consumed.  Every  country,  and  almost  every  district, 
has  its  peculiar  breeds,  which  by  long  association  have  become 
adapted  to  the  food  and  circumstances  of  its  position,  and 


^Ai.VE   CATTLE.  27 

when  found  profitable,  they  should  be  exchanged  for  others, 
only  after  the  most  thorough  trial  of  superior  fitness  for  the 
particular  location,  in  those  proposed  to  be  introduced. 

More  attention  has  been  paid  to  the  improvement  of  the  va- 
rious breeds  of  cattle  in  England,  than  in  an}"  other  country ; 
and  it  is  there  they  have  attained  the  greatest  perfection  in 
form  and  character  for  the  various  purposes  to  which  they  are 
devoted.  We  have  derived,  directly  from  Great  Britain,  not 
only  the  parent  stock  from  which  nearly  all  our  cattle  are  de- 
scended, but  also  most  of  tliose  fresh  importations,  to  which 
we  have  looked  for  improvement  on  the  present  race  of  animals. 

A  few  choice  Dutch  cattle,  generally  black  and  white,  and 
of  large  size,  good  forms,  and  good  milkers,  with  a  decided 
tendency  to  fatten,  have  been  occasionally  mtroduced  among 
us,  but  not  in  numbers  sufficient  to  keep  up  a  distinct  breed ; 
and  in  the  hands  of  their  importers,  or  immediate  successors, 
their  peculiar  characteristics  have  soon  become  merged  in 
those  herds  by  which  they  were  surrounded.  Some  few 
French  and  Spanish  cattle,  the  descendants  of  those  remote 
importations,  made  when  the  colonies  of  those  kingdoms  held 
possession  of  our  northern,  western,  and  southern  frontiers, 
still  exist  in  those  sections ;  and  although  possessing  no  claims 
to  particular  superiority,  at  least  in  any  that  have  come  within 
our  notice,  yet  they  are  so  well  acclimated,  and  adapted  to 
their  various  localities,  as  to  render  it  inexpedient  to  attempt 
supplanting  them,  except  with  such  as  are  particularly  meri- 
torious. 

Native  Cattle. 

This  is  a  favorite  term  with  Americans,  and  comprehends 
every  thing  in  the  country,  excepting  such  as  are  of  a  pure  and 
distinct  breed.  It  embraces  some  of  the  best,  some  of  the 
worst,  and  some  of  almost  every  variety,  shape,  color,  and 
character  of  the  bovine  race.  The  designation  has  no  farther 
meaning,  than  that  they  are  indigenous  to  the  soil,  and  do  not 
belong  to  any  well-defined  or  distinct  variety. 

The  best  native  cattle  of  the  Union  are  undoubtedly  to  be 
found  in  the  IN'ortheastern  states.  Most  of  the  early  emigrant 
cattle  in  that  section  were  from  the  southern  part  of  England, 
where  the  Devon  cattle  abound ;  and  though  not  at  the  pres- 
ent time  bearing  a  close  resemblance  to  that  breed,  unless  it 
has  been  impressed  upon  them  by  more  recent  importations, 
yet  a  large  number  have  that  general  approximation  in  char- 
acter, features,  and  color,  which  entitles  them  to  claim  a  near 


28  DOMESTIC    ANIMALS. 

kindred  witli  one  of  the  choicest  cultivated  breeds.  They  have 
the  same  symmetry,  but  not  in  general  the  excessive  delicacy 
©f  form,  which  characterizes  the  Devons ;  the  same  intelli- 
gence, activity,  and  vigor  in  the  working  cattle,  and  the  same 
tendency  to  fattening  ;  but  they  are  usually  better  for  the  dairy 
than  their  imported  ancestors.  Some  valuable  intermixtures 
have  occasionally  been  made  among  them.  Among  these, 
there  have  been  many  brindled  cattle  widely  disseminated,  of 
great  merit  as  workers,  and  not  often  surpassed  for  the  dairy 
and  shambles. 

The  Herefords  have  in  a  few  instances  been  introduced  among 
the  eastern  cattle,  and  apparently  with  great  improvement. 
The  importation  made  by  Admiral  Coffin,  of  four  choice  Here- 
ford bulls  and  cows,  which  were  presented  to  the  State  Agri- 
cultural Society  of  Massachusetts,  nearly  thirty  years  since,  is 
especially  to  be  mentioned,  as  resulting  in  decided  benefit 
wherever  they  were  disseminated.  Some  of  the  old  Yorkshire, 
or  as  they  are  sometimes  styled,  the  long-horned  Durhams, 
have  been  introduced,  though  these  have  been  isolated  indi- 
\iduals  and  never  perpetuated  as  a  separate  breed.  A  few 
small  importations  have  been  made  of  the  Short  Horns  and 
Ayrshires,  but  neither  of  these  have  been  bred  in  the  New 
England  states  in  distinct  herds,  to  any  extent. 

Their  native  breed  has  hitherto,  and  generally  with  good 
reason,  possessed  claims  on  the  attention  of  their  owners, 
which,  with  some  slight  exceptions,  it  has  not  been  in  the 
power  of  any  rivals  to  supplant.  V/ith  entire  adaptedness  to 
the  soil,  chmate,  and  wants  of  the  farmer,  an  originally  good 
stock  has,  in  frequent  instances,  been  carefully  fostered,  and 
the  breeding  animals  selected  with  a  strict  reference  to  their 
fitness  for  perpetuating  the  most  desirable  qualities.  As  a 
consequence  of  this  intelligent  and  persevering  policy,  widely, 
but  not  universally  pursued,  they  have  a  race  of  cattle,  though 
possessing  considerable  diversity  of  size  and  color,  yet  coinci- 
ding in  a  remarkable  degree  in  the  possession  of  those  utilita- 
rian featm^es,  which  so  justly  commend  them  to  our  admiration. 

In  proceeding  southwestwardly  through  New  York,  New 
Jersey,  and  elsewhere,  we  shall  find  in  this  branch  qf  stock,  a 
greater  diversity  and  less  uniform  excellence ;  though  they 
have  extensive  numbers  of  valuable  animals.  Here  and  there 
will  be  found  a  choice  collection  of  some  favorite  foreign  breed, 
which  emigrants  have  brought  from  their  native  home,  as  did 
the  Pagan  colonists  their  penates  or  household  gods;  the 
cherished  associates  of  early  days,  and  the  only  rehcs  of  their 


THE    DEVON.  29 

father-land.  Sucli  are  an  occasional  small  herd  of  polled  or 
hornless  cattle,  originally  derived  from  Suffolk  or  Galloway, 
excellent  both  for  the  dairy  and  shan^bles  ;  the  Kyloe,  or  West 
Hio:hland,  (Scottish,)  a  hardy  animal,  mirivalled  for  beef;  the 
Welsh  runt;  the  Irish  cattle;  the  crumpled-horn  Alderney, 
and  some  others. 

The  Devon 

Is  among  the  oddest  distinctly  cultivated  breeds  in  this 
country,  as  it  undoubtedly  is  of  England,  and  probably  it  is 
the  most  universal  favorite.  This  popularity  is  well  deserved, 
and  it  is  based  upon  several  substantial  considerations.  They 
are  beautifully  formed,  possessing  excessive  fineness  and  sym- 
metry of  frame,  yet  with  sufficient  bone  and  muscle  to  render 
them  perfectly  hardy  ;  and  they  are  among  the  most  vigorous 
and  active  of  working  cattle.  They  have  great  uniformity  of 
appearance  in  every  feature,  size,* shape,  horns,  and  color.  The 
cows  and  bulls  appear  small,  but  the  ox  is  much  larger ;  and 
both  he  and  the  dam,  on  cutting  up,  are  found  to  weigh  much 
beyond  the  estimates  which  an  eye  accustomed  only  to  ordi- 
nary breeds,  would  have  assigned  to  them.  The  flesh  is  finely 
marbled  or  interspersed  with  alternate  fat  and  lean,  and  is  of 
superior  quality  and  flavor. 

The  cows  invariably  yield  milk  of  great  richness,  and  when 
appropriately  bred,  none  surpass  them  for  the  quantity  of 
butter  and  cheese  it  yields.  Mr.  Bloomfield,  the  manager  of 
the  late  Lord  Leicester's  estate  at  Holkham,  has,  by  careful 
attention,  somewhat  increased  the  size,  without  impairing  the 
beauty  of  their  form,  and  so  successful  has  he  been  in  de- 
veloping their  milldng  properties,  that  his  average  product  of 
butter  from  each  cow,  is  4  lbs.  per  week  for  the  whole  year. 
He  has  challenged  England  to  milk  an  equal  number  of  cows 
of  any  breed,  against  40  pure  Devons,  to  be  selected  oat  ot 
his  own  herd,  without  as  yet  having  found  a  competitor.  Al- 
though this  is  not  a  test  of  their  merits,  and  by  no  means 
decides  their  superiority,  yet  it  shows  the  great  confidence 
reposed  in  them  by  their  owner.  The  Devon  ox,  under  six 
years  old,  has  come  up  to  a  nett  dead  weight  of  1,5  y 3  lbs.  ; 
and  at  three  years  and  seven  months,  to  1,316  lbs.,  with  160 
lbs.  of  rough  tallow. 

Descri2:)tion.  The  Devon  is  of  medium  size,  and  so  sym- 
metrical, as  to  appear  small.  The  color  is  invariably  a  deep 
mahogany  red,  with  usually  a  white  udder  and  strip  under  the 

3* 


30  DOMESTIC    ANIMALS. 

belly  •  and  the  tuft  at  tlie  end  of  the  tail  is  red  while  they 
are  calves,  but  white  in  the  olde-r  animal.  The  head  is  small, 
broad  in  the  forehead,  and  somewhat  indented.  The  muzzle 
is  delicate,  and  both  the  nose  and  the  rings  around  the  eye,  in 
the  pure  breed,  are  invariably  of  a  bright,  clear  orange.  The 
cheeks  and  face  are  thin  and  tleshless  ;  the  horns  clear,  smooth, 
and  of  a  yellowish  white,  handsomely  curved  upward.  The 
neck  is  small  and  delicate  at  its  juncton  with  the  head,  but  is 
well  expanded  in  its  attachment  to  the  breast  and  shoulders. 
The  last  has  the  true  slant  for  activity  and  strength,  in  which 
it  excels  all  other  breeds  of  equal  weight.  The  barrel  is  round 
and  deep,  with  a  projecting  brisket.  The  back  is  broad  and 
level ;  the  flank  full ;  hips  wide  ;  the  rumps  long ;  the  quar- 
ters well  developed,  and  capable  of  holding  a  great  quantity 
of  the  most  valuable  meat.  The  tail  is  on  a  level  with  the 
back,  and  gracefully  tapers  like  a  drum-stick,  to  the  tuft  on 
the  end.  The  legs  are  of  pecuhar  delicacy  and  fineness,  yet 
possess  great  strength.  The  skin  is  of  medium  thickness,  of  a 
rich  orange  hue,  pliable  to  the  touch,  and  covered  with  a  thick 
coating  of  fine,  soft,  curly  hair.  The  Devon  is  intelligent, 
gentle,  and  tractable ;  is  good  for  milk,  and  unsurpassed  for 
the  yoke  and  for  fattening,  No  animal  is  better  suited  to  our 
scanty  or  luxuriant  hill  pastures  than  the  Devon,  and  none 
make  a  better  return  for  the  attention  and  food  received. 
They  ensure  a  rapid  improvement  when  mixed  with  other 
cattle,  imparting  their  color  and  characteristics  in  an  eminent 
degree.  Several  importations  have  been  made  into  this  country 
within  the  last  30  years,  of  the  choicest  animals,  and  though 
not  yet  numerous  in  the  United  States,  we  possess  some  of 
the  best  specimens  that  exist. 

The  Short  Horns,  or  Durhams. 

Are  decidi'dly  the  most  showy  among  the  cattle  species. 
They  are  of  all  colors  between  a  full,  deep  red,  and  a  pure 
creamy  white ;  but  generally  have  both  intermixed  in  larger  or 
smaller  patches,  or  intimately  blended  in  a  beautiful  roan. 
Black,  brown,  or  brindled,  are  colors  not  recognised  among 
pure-bred  Short  Horns.  Their  form  is  well-spread,  symmetri- 
cal, and  imposing,  and  capable  of  sustaining  a  large  weight  of 
valuable  carcass.  The  horn  was  originally  branching  and 
turned  upward,  but  now  frequently  has  a  downward  tendency, 
•with  the  tips  pointing  towards  each  other.  They  are  fight, 
and  comparatively  short ;  clear,  highly  polished,  and  waxy. 


THE  SHORT  HORNS,  OR  DURHAMS. 


31 


The  head  is  finely,  formed,  with  a  longer  face  but  not  so  fine  a 
muzzle  as  the  Devon.  The  neck  is  delicately  formed  without 
dewlap,  the  brisket  projectina:;  and  the  great  depth  and  width 

■  m^ 


A  Short-Horn  Bull. 


of  the  chest  giving  short,  well-spread  fore-legs.     The  crops 
are  good;   back  and  loin  broad  and  flac  •  ribs   projecting; 


32  DOMESTIC    ANIMALS. 

deep  flank  and  twist ;  tail  well  set  up,  strong  at  the  roots  and 
tapering.  They  have  a  thick  covering  of  soft  hair,  and  are 
mellow  to  the  touch,  technically  termed,  handling  well.  They 
mature  early  and  rapidly  for  the  quantity  of  food  consumed, 
yielding  largely  of  good  beef  with  little  oflPal.  As  a  breed, 
they  are  excellent  milkers  ;  though  some  famihes  of  the  Shoi-t 
Horns  surpass  others  in  this  quality.  They  are  inferior  to  the 
Devons,  in  their  value  as  working  oxen,  and  in  the  richness  of 
their  milk. 

The  Short  Horns  are  assigned  a  high  antiquity,  by  the 
oldest  breeders  in  the  counties  of  Durham  and  Yorkshire, 
England,  the  place  of  their  origin,  and  for  a  long  time,  of 
their  almost  exclusive  breeding.  Fron\  the  marked  and  de- 
cided improvement  which  they  stamp  upon  other  animals, 
they  are  evidently  an  ancient  breed,  though  much  the  juniors 
of  the  Devon  and  Hereford.  Their  highly  artificial  style, 
form,  and  character,  are  unquestionably  the  work  of  deeply 
studied  and  long-continued  art ;  and  to  the  same  degree  that 
they  have  been  moulded  in  unresisting  compliance  with  the 
dictation  of  their  intelligent  breeders,  have  they  departed 
from  that  light  and  more  agile  form  of  the  Devon,  which  con- 
clusively and  beyond  the  possibility  of  contradiction,  marks 
the  more  primitive  race. 


THE    IMPORTATION    OF    SHORT    HORNS    INTO    THIS 
COUNTRY. 

This  is  claimed  to  have  been  previous  to  1783.  They  are  the 
reputed  ancestors  of  many  choice  animals  existing  in  Vir- 
ginia, in  the  latter  part  of  the  last  century,  and  Avhich  were 
known  as  the  milk  breed ;  and  some  of  these,  with  others 
termed  the  heef  breed,  were  taken  into  Kentucky  by  Mr.  Pat- 
ton,  as  early  as  17  97,  and  their  descendants,  a  valuable  race 
of  animals,  were  much  disseminated  in  the  West,  and  known 
as  the  Patton  stock. 

The  first  authentic  importations  we  have  recorded,  are 
those  of  Mr.  Heaton,  into  Westchester,  IST.  Y.,  in  1791  and 
'96,  from  the  valuable  herds  of  Messrs.  Culley  and  Colling, 
which  consisted  of  several  choice  bulls  and  cows.  These 
were  for  many  years  bred  pure,  and  their  progeny  was  widely 
scattered.  [American  Herd  Book.)  They  were  also  imparted 
into  New  York,  by  Mr.  Cox,  in  1816;  by  Mr.  Bullock,  in 
1822  ;  by  the  late  Hon.  S.  Van  Rensselaer  in  1823  ;  and  im- 


THE    IMPORTATION    OF    SHOUT    IIOKNS. 


S3 


mediately  after,  by  Mr.  Charles  Henry  Hall,  of  Harlem. 
Some  small  importations  were  made  into  Massachusetts  be- 
tween 1817  and  '25,  by  several  enterprising  agriculturists, 
Messrs.  Coolidge,  Williams,  and  others ;  into  Connecticut  by 


Fig  2. 


f%f5-^# 


r   f. 


rf^^^^"^^;, 


Short-Horned  Cow. 


Mr.  Hall  and  others  ;  into  Pennsylvania  by  Mr.  Powell ;  and 
into  Ohio  and  some  other  states,  by  various  individuals  early 
in  the  present  century. 


84  DOMESTIC    ANIMAIS. 

Since  tlie  firsi  importations,  larger  accessions  from  the  best 
English  herds  have  been  frequently  made ;  and  with  the  nice 
regard  for  pedigrees  which  the  introduction  of  the  herd  book, 
and  careful  purity  in  breeding  has  produced,  the  Short  Horns 
have  become  the  most  extensive  pure-bred  family  of  cattle  in 
the  United  States. 

During  the  speculative  times  of  1835  to  1840,  they  brought 
high  prices,  frequently  from  $500  to  llOOO,  and  sometimes 
more.  The  following  years  of  financial  embarrassment,  re- 
duced their  market  price  below  their  intrinsic  value ;  but  the 
tide  is  again  turning,  and  the}'  are  now  in  demand,  but  still  at 
prices  far  below  their  utility  and  merits.  They  have  from  the 
first,  been  favorites  in  the  rich,  corn  valleys  of  the  West,  their 
early  maturity  and  great  weight  giving  them  a  preference 
over  any  other  breed.  The  only  drawback  to  this  partiality, 
is  their  inability,  from  their  form  and  weight,  to  reach  remote 
eastern  markets  in  good  condition  ;  an  objection  now  in  a 
great  measure  remedied,  by  the  recent  remission  of  duties  on 
foreio'n  beef  in  the  En  owlish  market,  which  makes  them  of 
nearly  equal  value  where  fed,  to  pack  for  exportation.  On 
light  lands  and  scanty  pastures,  they  will  probably  never  be 
largely  introduced.  All  heavy  animals  require  full  forage 
within  a  limited  compass,  so  as  to  fill  their  stomachs  at  once, 
and  quietly  compose  themselves  to  tlieir  digestion. 

The  weights  reached  by  the  Short  Horns  in  England,  as 
given  by  Mr.  Berry,  have  been  enormous.  Two  oxen,  six 
years  old,  v/eighed  nett,  1820  lbs.  each.  A  heifer  of  three 
years,  and  fed  on  grass  and  hay  alone,  weighed  1260  lbs.  A 
four-year-old  steer,  fed  on  hay  and  turnips  only,  dressed  1890 
lbs.  A  cow  reached  the  prodigious  weight  of  1778  lbs.  A 
heifer,  running  with  her  dam,  and  on  pasture  alone,  weighed 
at  seven  months,  4*76  lbs.  An  ox,  seven  years  old,  vreighed 
2362  lbs.  From  their  comparatively  small  numbers  in  this 
country,  most  of  them  have  been  retained  for  breeders  ;  few, 
as  yet,  have  been  fattened,  and  such  only  as  were  decidedly 
inferior.  Such  animals  as  have  been  extensively  produced  hj 
crossing  this  breed  upon  our  former  stocks,  have  given  evi- 
dence of  great  and  decided  improvement ;  and  the  Short 
Horn^,  and  their  grade  descendants  are  destined,  at  no  dis- 
tant day,  to  occupy  a  large  portion  of  the  richest  feeding 
grounds  in  the  United  States. 


HEREFORDS. 


35 


Herefords. 

This  is  tlic  only  remaining  pure  breed,  which  has  hitherto 
occupied  the  attention  of  graziers  in  this  country.  Like  the 
Devons,  they  ire  supposed  to  be  one  of  the  most  ancient  races 
of  British  caUle.  Marshall  gives  the  following  description. 
*'  Tho  countenance  pleasant,  cheerful,  open ;  the  forehead 
broad  ;  eye  full  and  lively ;  horns  bright,  taper,  and  spread- 
ing ;  head  small ;  chap  lean ;  neck  long  and  tapering  ;  chest 
deep  ;  bosom  broad,  and  projecting  forward ;  shoulder-bone 
thin,  flat,  no  way  protuberani  m  bone  (?)  but  full  and  mellow 
in  flesh  ;  chest  full ;  loin  broaa  ;  hips  standing  wide,  and  level 
with  the  chine ;  quarters  long,  and  wide  at  the  neck ;  rump 
even  with  the  level  of  the  back,  and  not  drooping,  nor  stand- 
ing high  and  sharp  above  the  quarters  ;  tail  slender  and  neatly 
hau'ed ;    barrel   round  and    roomy ;    the  carcass  throughout 

Fig.  3. 


Hereford  Covv' 


deep  and  Avell  spread ;  ribs  broad,  standing  flat  and  close  on 
the  outer  surface,  forming  a  sm^ooth,  even  barrel,  the  hind- 
most large  and  full  of  length  ;  round-bone  small,  snug,  and 
not  prominent ;  thigh  clean,  and  regularly  tapering ;  legs  up- 
right and  short ;  bone  below  the  knee  and  hock  small ;  feet 


36 


DOMESTIC    ANIMALS. 


Fig.  4. 


HEREFOEDS.  37 

of  middle  size ;  flank  large ;  flesh  everywhere  mellow,  soft, 
and  yielding  pleasantly  to  the  touch,  especially  on  the 
chine,  the  shoulder,  and  the  ribs ;  hide  mellow,  supple,  of 
a  middle  thickness,  and  loose  on  the  neck  and  huckle ;  coat 
neatly  haired,  bright  and  silky ;  color,  a  middle  red,  with  a 
bald  face  characteristic  of  the  true  Herefordshire  breed." 

Youatt  further  describes  them  as  follows  :  "  They  are  usu- 
ally of  a  darker  red ;  some  of  them  are  brown,  and  even  yel- 
low, and  a  few  are  brindled ;  but  they  are  principally  distin- 
guished by  their  white  faces,  throats,  and  bellies.  In  a  few 
the  white  extends  to  the  shoulders.  The  old  Herefords  were 
brown  or  red-brown,  vnth  not  a  spot  of  white  about  tl.t^ra.  It 
is  only  within  the' last  fifty  or  sixty  years  that  it  has  been  the 
fashion  to  breed  for  white  faces.  Whatever  may  be  thought 
of  the  change  of  color,  the  present  breed  is  certainly  far  supe- 
rior to  the  old  one.  The  hide  is  considerably  thicker  than  that 
of  the  Devon,  and  the  beasts  are  more  hardy.  Compared  with 
the  Devons,  they  are  shorter  in  the  leg,  and  also  in  the  carcass  ; 
nigher,  and  broader,  and  heavier  in  the  chine ;  rounder  and 
wider  across  the  hips,  and  better  covered  with  fat ;  the  thigk 
fuller  and  more  muscular,  and  the  shoulders  larger  and  coarser. 

They  are  not  now  much  used  for  husbandry,  although  theii 
form  adapts  them  for  the  heavier  work ;  and  they  have  all  the 
honesty  and  docility  of  the  Devon  ox,  and  greater  strength,  if 
not  Ills  activity.  The  Herefordshire  ox  fattens  speedily  at  a 
very  early  age,,  and  it  is  therefore  more  advantageous  to  the 
farmer,  and  perhaps  to  the  country,  that  he  should  go  to  mar- 
ket at  three  years  old,  than  be  kept  longer  as  a  beast  of 
draught. 

They  are  not  as  good  milkers  as  the  Devons.  This  is  so 
generally  acknowledged,  that  vdiile  there  are  many  dairies  of 
Devon  cows  in  various  parts  of  the  country,  a  dairy  of  Here- 
fords is  rarely  to  be  found.  To  compensate  for  this,  they  are 
even  more  kindly  feeders  than  the  Devons.  Their  beef  may 
be  objected  to  by  some  as  being  occasionally  a  little  too  large 
in  the  bone,  and  the  fore-quarters  being  coarse  and  heavy  ; 
but  the  meat  of  the  best  pieces  is  often  very  fine-grained  and 
beautifully  marbled.  There  are  few  cattle  more  prized  in  the 
market  than  the  genuine  Herefords." 

There  have  been  several  importations  of  the  Herefords  into 
the  United  States,  which  by  crossing  with  our  native  cattle, 
have  done  great  good ;  but  with  the  exception  of  a  few  fine 
animals  at  the  South,  we  are  not  aware  of  their  being  kept  in 
a  state  of  purity,  till  the  importation  of  the  splendid  herd^ 

4 


38  DOMESTIC    ANIMALS. 

within  the  last  six  years,  by  Messrs.  Corning  and  Sotham  of 
Albany,  N.  Y.  These  Hereford s  are  among  the  very  best 
which  England  can  produce,  and  come  up  fully  to  the  descrip- 
tion of  the  choicest  of  the  breed.  Mr.  Sotham,  after  an  expe- 
rience of  several  years,  is  satisfied  with  the  cows  for  the  dairy  ; 
and  he  has  given  very  favorable  published  statements  of  the 
results  of  their  milking  qualities,  from  which  it  may  be  properly 
inferred,  that  Youatt  drew  his  estimates  from  some  herds 
which  were  quite  indifferent  in  this  property.  They  are  pecu- 
liarly the  grazier's  animal,  as  they  improve  rapidly  and  matm^e 
early  on  medium  feed.  They  are  excelled  for  the  yoke,  if  at 
all,  only  by  the  Devons,  which,  in  some  features,  they  strongly 
resemble.  Both  are  probably  divergent  branches  of  the  same 
original  stock. 

The  Ayrshire 

Is  a  breed  that  has  been  much  sought  after  of  late  years, 
from  their  reputation  for  fine  dairy  qualities.  The  milk  is  good 
both  in  quantity  and  quahty,  yielding,  according  to  a  recent 
statement  of  Mr.  Tennant,  of  Scotland,  who  owns  a  large  herd, 
fifteen  quarts  per  day  during  the  best  of  the  season,  twelve  of 
w^iich  made  a  pound  of  butter.  The  product  of  the  latter 
averages  about  170  pounds  per  annum  to  each  cow.  Another 
authority  says,  on  the  best  low-land  pasture,  a  good  cow  yields 
nearly  4000  quarts  per  year.  This  is  a  large  quantity,  and 
implies  good  cows  and  extra  feed. 

Mr.  Gushing,  of  Massachusetts,  who  imported  several  select 
-animals,  wdthout  regard  to  their  cost,  informed  us,  after  three 
or  four  years'  trial,  that  he  did  not  perceive  any  superiority  in 
them,  over  the  good  native  cows  of  that  state,  for  dairy  pur- 
poses. A  large  number  have  been  imported  in  detached  par- 
cels, and  scattered  through  the  country.  They  are  good  ani- 
mals, but  seem  to  combine  no  valuable  properties  in  a  higher 
degree  than  are  to  be  found  in  our  own  good  cattle,  and  espe- 
cially such  as  are  produced  from  a  cross  of  the  Short  Horn 
bull  of  a  good  milking  family,  on  our  native  cows.  They  are 
evidently  a  recent  breed,  and  do  not  therefore  possess  that 
uniformity  of  appearance  and  quality,  which  attaches  to  one  of 
long  cultivation, 

Mr,  Alton,  of  Scotland,  gives  the  follow^ing  account  of  them: 
"The  dairy  breed  of  Scotland  have  been  formed  chiefly  by 
skilful  management,  within  the  last  50  years ;  and  they  ar^ 
still  improving  and   extending  t)  other  countries.     Till  after 


MANAGE3IENT  OF  CALVES.  39 

1770,  the  cows  in  Cunningliam  were  small,  ill-fed,  ill-sliaped, 
and  ga*^e  but  little  milk.  Some  cows  of  a  larger  breed  and  of 
a  brown  and  white  color,  were  about  that  time  brought  to 
Ayrshire  from  Teeswater,  and  from  Holland,  by  some  of  the 
patriotic  noblemen  of  Ayrshire ;  and  these  being  put  on  good 
pasture,  yielded  more  milk  than  the  native  breed,  and  their 
calves  were  much  sought  after  by  the  farmers." 

We  may  fairly  infer  from  the  foregoing,  Avhich  is  deemed 
indisputable  authority ;  from  the  locality  of  their  origin,  in 
the  neighborhood  of  the  Short  Horns  ;  arid  from  their  general 
resemblance,  both  externally  and  in  their  general  characteris- 
tics to  the  grade  animals,  that  they  owe  their  principal  excel- 
lence to  tliis  long-estabhshed  breed. 


MANAGEMENT  OF  CALVES. 

The  safest  and  least  troublesome  manner  of  raising  calves, 
is  at  the  udder  of  the  dam ;  and  whenever  the  milk  is  con- 
verted into  butter  and  cheese,  we  beheve  this  to  be  the  most 
economical.  The  milk  of  one  good  cow  is  sufficient,  with  a 
run  of  fresh,  sweet  pasture,  to  the  feeding  of  two  calves  at  the 
same  time ;  and  if  we  allow  the  calves  to  arrive  at  three  or 
four  months  of  age  before  weaning,  we  may  safely  estimate, 
that  one  good  cow  will  yield  a  quantity  of  milk  in  one  season, 
fully  equivalent  to  bringing  up  four  calves  to  a  weaning  age. 

By  keeping  the  calf  on  the  fresh  milk,  whether  he  take  it 
directly  from  the  udder,  or  warm  from  the  pail,  all  risk  of  dis- 
ordered bowels  is  avoided.  The  milk  is  precisely  adapted  to 
the  perfect  health  and  thrift  of  the  young,  and  whenever  we 
substitute  for  it  any  other  food,  we  must  watch  carefully  that 
not  the  slightest  mismanagement  produces  disorder,  lest  more 
is  lost  by  disease  or  v^ant  of  improvement,  than  is  gained  by 
the  milk  of  which  they  are  robbed. 

The  first  milk  of  the  cow  after  calving,  is  slightly  purgative, 
which  is  essential  to  cleanse  the  stomach  of  the  calf.  It  is, 
moreover,  perfectly  wortliless  for  two  or  three  days,  for  any 
other  purpose  except  for  swdne.  The  calf  will  seldom  take 
all  the  milk  at  first,  and  whatever  is  left  in  the  bag  should  be 
thoroughly  removed  by  the  hand.  If  the  calf  is  destined  for 
the  butcher,  he  must  have  all  the  milk  he  wants  for  at  least 
six  weeks,  and  eight  or  ten  is  better ;  and  if  the  cow  does  not 
furnish  enough,  he  ought  to  be  fed  gruel  or  linseed  tea.  He 
must  be  closely  confined  in  a  snug,  but  clean  and  airy  stable. 


40  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS. 

and  the  darker  this  is,  and  the  more  quiet  he  .6  kept,  the  more 
readily  he  will  fatten. 

If  designed  to  be  reared,  the  safest  and  least  troublesome 
method,  is  to  keep  the  calf  on  new  milk.  If  saving  the  milk 
be  an  object,  it  is  still  doubtful  whether  it  is  not  better  that 
he  should  have  a  part  of  it  fresh  from  the  cow,  and  depend 
for  his  remaining  food  on  a  good  grass  or  clover  pasture, 
meal,  or  roots. 

Some  farmers  never  allow  the  calf  to  approach  the  dam, 
but  take  it  when  first  dropped,  and  put  a  handful  of  salt  in  its 
mouth,  which  is  daily  repeated  till  he  is  put  to  grass.  This 
has  a  purgative  effect,  similar  to  the  first  milk.  Flaxseed  is 
then  prepared,  by  boiling  a  pint  in  four  to  six  quarts  of  water, 
and  diluted  with  hay  tea  till  it  is  rather  thicker  than  milk, 
and  fed  at  blo'><^  heat. 

Hay  tea  is  made,  by  boiling  a  pound  of  sweet,  well-cured 
clover,  in  one  and  a  half  gallons  of  clean  water. 

As  the  calf  becomes  older,  oat,  barley,  rye,  or  Indian  meal 
may  be  scalded  and  added  to  the  flaxseed. 

When  the  skim -milk  is  of  little  consequence,  a  better  way 
is  to  ^ithdrav/  him  from  the  cow  after  three  or  four  days, 
then  scald  the  milk,  adding  a  little  oat  meal,  and  cool  to  the 
natural  temperature  of  the  milk,  and  feed  it.  Oats,  either 
crushed  or  ground,  is  the  best  and  safest  grain  for  all  young 
stock.  The  milk  should  not  stand  more  than  half  a  day  be- 
fore feeding  to  young  calves.  As  they  advance  in  age,  it  may 
be  fed  rather  older,  but  should  never  be  allowed  to  become 
sour ;  nor  should  it  ever  be  fed  cold.  Connected  with  this 
feed,  should  be  a  good  range  of  short,  sweet  pasture,  and 
shelter  against  both  sun  and  storms.  If  expedient,  at  about 
10  weeks  old,  he  may  be  safely  weaned,  but  four  months' 
nursing  is  better  for  the  calf. 

If  allowed  too  much  milk  for  several  months,  it  is  injurious 
to  the  future  development  of  the  young.  It  does  not  distend 
the  stomach  properly,  nor  call  into  use  its  ruminating  habits. 
Calves  thus  brought  up,  have  often  proved  light-bellied,  in- 
different feeders,  and  decidedly  inferior  animals.  When  the 
calf  is  removed  from  the  cow,  they  should  be  effectually  sep- 
arated from  sight  and  hearing,  as  recognition  creates  uneasi- 
ness, and  is  an  impediment  to  thrift  in  both. 

If  there  be  any  deficiency  of  suitable  pasture  for  the  calf,  a 
small  rack  and  trough  should  be  placed  under  the  shed  in  his 
range,  and  fine  hay  put  in  the  former,  and  wheat  bran  or  oat 
DQcal  with  a  little  salt  in  the  latter. 


BREEDING.  41 


Diseases  and  Remedies. 

For  disordered  bowels,  mix  2  dr.  rhubarb,  2  oz.  castor  oil, 
and  ^  dr.  ginger,  with  a  httle  warm  milk  or  gruel ;  or  give  2 
oz.  castor  oil  alone ;  or  3  oz.  of  Epsom  salts. 

For  scours  and  diarrhoea,  a  homely  remedy  is,  to  administer 
half  a  pint  of  cider,  with  an  equal  quantity  of  blood  drawn 
from  the  caK's  neck. 

Or,  add  a  httle  rennet  to  its  food. 

A  good  remedy  is,  1  oz.  powdered  canella  bark  ;  1  oz.  laud- 
anum ;  4  oz.  prepared  chalk ;  and  one  pint  water.  Mix  to- 
gether, and  give  a  wine-glass  full  or  more,  according  to  the 
size  of  the  calf,  three  times  a  day. 

Costiveness  is  removed  by  giving  pork  broth. 

Or,  give  3  to  4  oz.  Epsom  salts,  dissolved  in  3  pints  of  wa- 
ter, injected  into  the  stomach;  and  repeat  part  of  this  dose 
every  3  or  4  hours,  till  the  desired  effect  is  produced. 

Calves,  hke  all  young  stock,  should  be  allowed  to  change 
their  feed  gradually,  from  new  milk  to  skimmed,  or  from  the 
latter  to  other  food.  Their  stomachs  are  dehcate,  and  need 
gentle,  moderate  changes,  when  necessary  to  make  them  at 
all.  Much  depends  on  the  care  and  attention  they  receive.  It 
is  well  to  have  a  httle  resin  within  its  reach. 

A  comfortable  shelter,  with  a  dry,  warm  bed,  suitable  food, 
regularly  given  three  times  a  day,  at  blood  heat,  and  keeping 
the  stomach  in  proper  order,  will  do  much  to  bring  them  for- 
ward rapidly,  and  with  a  small  expenditure  of  food. 

The  calf  requires  to  be  supplied  through  the  winter  with  an 
abundance  of  fine,  sweet  hay  and  roots,  the  latter  either  chop- 
ped or  mashed  by  a  roller,  with  the  addition  of  a  trifle  of  meal 
or  oats,  and  a  full  supply  of  salt  and  pure  water. 

When  there  are  larger  animals  on  tbe  premises,  the  calves 
ought  to  be  kept  by  themselves.  They  should  be  sustained 
on  their  winter  feed  through  the  following  spring,  until  the 
grass  furnishes  a  good  bite  on  a  well-compacted  sod.  The 
change  from  hay  to  grass  must  be  gradual,  unless  the  latter  is 
considerably  matured.  The  extreme  relaxation  of  the  bowels 
from  the  sudden  change,  frequentlj^  produces  excessive  purg- 
ing. A  slight  and  temporary  relax  from  the  early  spring  grass, 
is  not  objectionable. 

Breeding. 

The  young  animals  should  never  be  put  to  breeding  under 
15  months  old,  so  as  to  bring  their  first  calf  at  two  years  old  * 

4* 


4:2  D03IESTIC    ANIMALS. 

nor  then,  unless  they  have  large  size  and  good  feed.  Much 
depends  on  the  progress  towards  maturity,  and  the  supply  of 
food  in  selecting  the  proper  time  for  breeding.  Some  are  as 
ready  for  this  at  a  year  and  a  half  as  others  are  at  three. 
Early  breeding  gives  delicacy  and  symmetry  to  the  form  of  the 
heifer,  but  it  checks  its  growth ;  and  Avhen  it  is  found  to  put 
her  back  too  much,  she  may  be  allowed  to  rest  for  a  few 
months,  or  even  a  year,  to  bring  her  up  to  the  desired  stand- 
ard. These  remarks  apply  principally  to  choice  breeders,  or 
as  they  are  sometimes  termed,  fancy  stock.  For  ordinary  milch 
cows  which  have  been  moderately  fed,  three  years  is  a  proper 
age  to  come  in,  after  which  they  must  be  milked  as  regularly, 
and  as  late  before  drying  as  possible. 

Breaking  Steers 

Should  be  commenced  when  two  or  three  years  old.  Some 
begin  with  the  calf,  accustoming  him  to  a  light  yoke  and  occa- 
sional training.  This  practice  will  do  as  a  pastime  for  trust- 
worthy boys,  as  it  makes  them  gentle  and  manageable  after- 
wards, but  is  hardly  worth  a  man's  time.  If  always  carefully 
handled  when  young,  the}^  will  be  found  tractable. 

They  should  at  first  be  placed  behind  a  pair  of  well-broke 
cattle,  nor  should  they  be  put  to  hard  labor  until  quite  grown, 
strong,  and  perfectly  accustomed  to  the  yoke.  If  properly 
managed,  cattle  may  be  trained  with  all  the  docility,  intelli- 
gence, and  much  of  the  activity  of  the  horse.  That  they  are 
not,  is  more  frequently  the  fault  of  their  masters. 

3ianagemeiit  of  Oxen. 

To  procure  perfect  working  cattle,  it  is  necessary  to  begin 
with  the  proper  breed.  Many  parts  of  the  country  furnish 
such  as  are  well  suited  to  this  purpose.  A  strong  dash  of 
Devon  or  Hereford  blood  is  desirable,  when  it  needs  to  be  im- 
proved. A  well-formed,  compact,  muscular  body ;  clean, 
sinewy  limbs ;  strong,  dense  bones ;  large,  well-formed  joints, 
with  a  mild  expressive  eye,  are  essential  for  good  working  oxen. 

After  breaking,  they  must  be  led  along  gently,  and  taught 
before  they  are  required  to  perform  their  task ;  and  never  put 
to  a  load  which  they  cannot  readily  move,  nor  dulled  by  pro- 
longing exertion  beyond  that  period  when  it  becomes  irksome. 
A  generous  diet  is  necessary,  to  keep  up  the  spirit  and  abihty 
of  cattle,  when  there  is  hard  work  to  be  done.  The  horse  and 
mule  are  fed  with  their  daily  rations  of  grain  when  at  hard 


MANAGEMENT    OF    OXEN,  43 

service,  and  if  the  spirit  of  the  ox  is  to  be  maintained,  he 
should  be  equally  well  fed,  when  as  fully  employed.  Great 
and  permanent  injury  is  the  result  of  niggardly  feeding  and 
severe  toil,  exacted  from  the  uncomplaining  animal.  His 
strimgth  declines,  his  spirit  flags,  and  if  this  treatment  be  con- 
tinued, he  rapidly  becomes  the  stupid,  moping  brute,  which 
is  shown  off  in  degrading  contrast  with  the  more  spirited 
horse,  that  performs,  it  may  be,  one  half  the  labor,  on  twice 
his  rations. 

The  ox  should  be  as  little  abused  by  threats  and  whipping, 
as  by  stinted  feed  and  overtasked  labor.  Loud  and  repeated 
hallooing,  or  the  severe  use  of  the  lash,  is  as  impolitic  as  it  is 
cruel  and  disgraceful.  We  never  witness  this  barbarity  with- 
out wishing  the  brutes  could  change  places,  long  enough  at 
least  to  teach  the  biped  that  humanity  by  his  own  sufferings 
which  his  reason  and  sensibility  have  failed  to  inspire.  Clear 
and  intelligible,  yet  low  and  gentle  words  are  all  that  are  ne- 
cessary to  guide  the  well-trained,  spirited  ox.  The  stick,  or 
whip,  is  needed  rather  to  indicate  the  precise  movement  de- 
sired, than  as  a  stimulant  or  means  of  punishment.  The  ox 
understands  a  moderate  tone  more  perfectly  than  a  boisterous 
one,  for  all  sounds  become  indistinct  as  they  increase. 

It  is  of  great  advantage  to  have  oxen  well  trained  to. baching. 
They  may  soon  be  taught,  by  beginning  with  an  empty  cart 
on  a  descent ;  then  on  a  level ;  then  with  an  increasing  load, 
or  uphill,  till  the  cattle  will  back  nearly  the  same  load  they 
will  draw. 

Some  oxen  have  a  bad  trick  of  hauling  or  croivding.  Chang- 
ing to  opposite  sides,  longer  or  shorter  yokes,  and  more  than 
all,  gentle  treatment,  are  the  only  remedies,  and  those  not 
unfrequently  fail.  Cattle  will  seldom  contract  this  habit,  in 
the  hands  of  a  judicious,  careful  driver.  The  yokes  should  be 
carefully  made,  and  set  easy,  and  the  bows  fitted  to  the 
necks  and  properly  attached  to  the  yoke.  Cattle  are  liable 
to  sore  necks  if  used  in  a  storm ;  and  when  subject  to  this 
exposure,  they  must  be  well  rubbed  with  grease,  where  the 
yoke  chafes  them,  and  respite  from  work  should  be  allowed 
till  the  necks  heal. 


44 


DOMESTIC    ANIMALS. 


Management  of  Bulls  or  Vicious  Animals. 

Fig.  5.  If  inclined  to  be  \dcious,  the  bulls  slioula 

have  rings  thrust  through  the  cartilage  of 
their  nose  when  young.  They  are  to  be 
found  at  the  agricultural  warehouses;  and 
are  made  of  round  iron,  three-eighths  of  an 
inch  diameter,  with  a  joint-  in  one  side  to 
open,  and  when  thrust  through  the  nose,  are 
fastened  in  a  moment,  by  a  rivet  previously 
p^'epared. 

Fig.  5  is  a  cattle-handler,  consisting  of  a 
bar  of  iron  A,  eight  inches  long,  with  a  ring 
for  a  man's  hand,  which  turns  on  a  swivel  at 
B,  and  at  the  other  end  is  a  pair  of  calhper- 
shaped  legs,  one  stationary,  and  the  otlicr 
opening  on  a  joint.  The  fixed  leg  is  inserted 
against  one  side  of  the  nostril,  and  the  other 
is  pressed  upon  the  opposite  side,  and  there 
fastened  by  a  slide,  C,  when  the  animal  is  firmly 
held  for  administering  medicine  or  performing 
Cattle-Handler,    any  operation. 


For  taming  savage  Animals. 


Figs.  6  and  Y,  for  tamijig  a  hull ;  b,  in  Fig.  6,  is  a  cap 
screwed  on  to  the  tip  of  the  horn ;  a  c,  an  iron  rod  hanging 
on  a  pivot  in  the  cap,  with  a  chain  reaching  to  the  ring  in 


FATTENING    CATTLE.  45 

the  nose.     The  effect  of  liis  attempting  to  hook,  k  illustrated 
by  the  \'arious  positions  of  the  chain  in  Fig-  8. 

Fig.  1.  If  the  rod  at  a,  is  pushed  in 
either  direction,  it  jerks  up  the  nose  in  a 
manner  that  cures  him  of  his  inclination. 
Fig.  8,  shows  a  cattle- tie. — This  is 
a  much  more  convenient  and  comfort-' 
able  mode  of  fastening  cattle  in  the 
stable,  than  the  common  stanchions.  Cattle^Tie. 

The  proper  time  for  turning  off  Cattle. 

This  must  depend  on  their  previous  feeding  and  manage- 
ment, the  breed,  and  the  purposes  required.  The  improved 
breeds  and  many  of  their  crosses,  will  mature  for  the  butcher 
as  fully  at  three  or  four,  as  inferior  cattle  at  five  to  seven 
years  old.  If  pushed  rapidly  with  proper  food,  they  will  of 
course  be  r^pe  much  sooner  than  if  stinted.  When  cattle 
have  to  be  purchased  for  work,  or  cows  for  the  dairy,  it  be- 
comes an  object  to  keep  them  as  long  as  they  can  be  made 
profitable,  and  yet  be  turned  off  for  fattening  at  a  fair  price. 
We  have  seen  active  and  spirited  oxen  in  the  yoke  at  16  or 
17;  but  they  seldom  do  as  well  after  12  or  even  10  years. 
Old  cattle  are  liable  to  more  diseases  than  young  ;  are  less 
hardy  ;  and  they  recover  more  sloAvly  when  exposed  to  scanty 
feed  or  hard  usage.  They  also  fatten  with  more  difficulty, 
and  their  meat  is  inferior.  When  they  can  be  sold  ad- 
vantageously to  the  feeder,  and  replaced  without  incon- 
venience, it  is  found  to  be  most  profitable  to  turn  them  off 
at  seven  or  eight  years.  They  will  by  that  time  have  at- 
tained full  maturity;  they  will  feed  rapidly,  and  make  the 
largest  amount  of  good  beef.  If  there  are  extraordinary 
milkers  among  the  cows,  or  superior  workers  among  the  oxen, 
it  is  better  to  keep  them  as  long  as  they  maintain  ^heir  full 
vigor. 

Fattening  Cattle./ 

Such  as  are  designed  for  the  shambles  the  ensuing  fall  or 
winter,  may  be  allowed  to  do  th^r  spring's  labor ;  or  if  cows, 
they  may  be  milked  into  summer  after  calving,  or  go  farrow 
during  the  previous  year.  They  should  early  be  put  on  the 
best  summer  feed,  and  it  is  better  to  be  occasionally  changed, 
to  give  variety  and  freshness,  and  keep  the  animal  in  good 


46 


DOMESTIC    ANIMALS. 


appetite.  Let  the  fattening  animals  have  the  best,  and  after 
they  have  cropped  it  a  while,  give  them  a  fresh  field ;  and 
the  other  animals  or  sheep  can  follow  and  clear  ofif  the  re- 
maining herbage,  preparatory  to  shutting  it  up  for  a  new 
growth.  Some  prefer  an  extensive  range  of  rich  feed,  which 
is  unchanged  throughout  the  season  ;  and  when  it  is  not  neces- 
sary to  divide  the  pasture  with  the  other  animals,  this  is  ?■ 
good  practice. 

Fig.  9.  Fig.  10. 


Fig.  11. 


Three  cuts  of  improved  forms,  Nos.  9,  10,  and  11.  The 
above  cuts  illustrate  the  forms  which  the  most  improved  beef- 
cattle  should  possess. 


The  selection  of  Animals  for  Stall  Fattening. 

This  is  a  nice  point,  and  none  without  a  practised  eye  and 
touch,  can  choose  such  as  will  make  the  best  return  for  the 
food  consumed.  The  characteristics  of  choice  animals,  here- 
tofore enumerated,  are  particularly  essential  in  those  intendec 
for  profitable  fattening.  Sut  the  most  important  of  all,  is 
that  firm  mellowness,  and  quick  elasticity  of  touch,  which  un- 
erringly mark  the  kindly  feeder  and  profitable  bullock. 
When  other  means  for  ascertaining  fail,  it  is  a  safe  rule  to 
select  the  best- conditioned  animals,  out  of  a  herd  of  grass- 


STALL-FEEDING. 


47 


fed ;  for  if  all  were  of  equal  flesh  and  Health,  when  turned 
out,  those  which  have  thriven  most  on  tlieir  summer  pasture, 
will  generally  fatten  quickest  on  their  fall  and  winter  keep. 
Only  the  best  should  be  selected.  The  remainder,  after  con- 
suming the  coarser  forage,  may  be  at  once  disposed  of  for 
early  use.  From  repeated  trials,  it  is  found  that  the  carcass 
of  stall-fed  animals  will  barely  return  the  value  of  the  ma- 
terials consumed,  and  their  manure  is  generally  the  only  com- 
pensation for  the  time  and  attention  bestowed.  None  but 
choice,  thrifty  beasts  will  pay  for  their  food  and  attention, 
and  all  others  will  make  their  best  returns,  by  an  immediate 
disposal,  after  the  surplus  fodder  is  gone. 

Fig.  12. 


Points  of  Cattle  Illustrated.  ;* 

Explanation.— A,  forehead  ;  B,  face ;  C,  cheek  ;  D,  muzzle  ;  E,  neck  ;  F,  neck 
vein;  G.  shoulder  point  ;  H,  arm;  I,  shank;  J,  gambril,  or  hock;  K,  elbow; 
L,  brisket,  bosom,  or  breast ;  M,  shoulder  ;  N,  crops  ;  O,  loin  ;  P,  hip,  bucks, 
hocks,  or  buckles ;  Q,  crupper  bone,  or  sacrum  ;  R,  rump,  or  pin-bone  ;  S, 
round  bone,  thurl,  or  whirl;  T,  buttock;  U,  thigh,  or  gaskit;  V,  flank;  W, 
plates  ;  X,  back,  or  chine  ;  Y,  throat ;  Z,  chest. 


Stall-Feediiig. 

This  ought  to  be  commenced  early  in  the  season.  An  ox 
may  be  fed  in  a  box-stall,  or  if  accustomed  to  a  mate,  they  do 
better  by  tying  together  with  sufficient  room,  yet  not  so  near 
as  to  allow  of  injuring  each  other.  The  building  should  be 
warm,  but  not  hot ;  well  ventilated,  yet  having  no  current  of 


48 


DOMESTIC    ANIMALS. 


cold  air  passing  through ;  and  as  dark  as  possible.  The  stall 
ought  to  be  kept  clean  and  dry,  and  a  deep  bed  of  clean  straw 
is  of  decided  advantage. 

The  ox  should  be  first  fed  the  inferior  and  most  perishable 
roots  with  his  grain  and  dry  forage,  and  his  food  should  be 
gradually  increased  in  lichness,  as  he  advances  towards  ma- 
turity. The  food  and  water  should  be  given  three  times  a  day, 
from  thoroughly  cleaned  mangers  or  troughs.  The  animal 
likes  a  change  of  food,  in  which  he  should  be  indulged  as  often 
as  may  be  necessary.  If  he  refuses  his  food,  a  temporary 
privation,  or  variety  is  essential.  When  the  food  is  changed, 
he  should  be  moderately  fed  at  first,  till  he  becomes  accustomed 
to  it,  as  there  is  otherwise  danger  of  cloying,  which  is  always 
injurious.  The  moment  the  animal  has  done  feeding,  the 
remainder  of  the  food  ought  to  be  at  once  removed.  He  then 
hes  down,  and  if  undisturbed,  rests  quietly  till  the  proper  hour 
mduces  him  again  to  look  for  his  accustomed  rations.  Regu- 
jarity  in  the  time  of  feeding,  is  of  the  utmost  consequence. 
An  animal  soon  becomes  habituated  to  a  certain  hour,  and  if 
It  be  delayed  beyond  this,  he  is  restless  and  impatient,  which 
are  serious  obstacles  to  speedy  fattening. 


Ox  cut  up. 

Fig.  13— Shows  the  London  method  of  cutting  up  the  carcass— Fig.  1,  is  the  lorn ; 
8,  rump  ;  3,  aitch  or  adz-bone  ;  4,  buttock  ;  5,  hock  ;  6,  thick  flank  ;  7,  thin  flank ; 
8.  fore-rib  ;  9,  middle  rib  ;  10,  cuck-rib  ;  11,  brisuct;  12,  leg  of  mutton  piece  ;  13, 
clod  or  neck  ;  14,  brisket. 


SKELETON    OF    AN    OX. 


49 


Fig.  14. 


Skeleton  of  an  Ox. 


1.  Temporal  bone.— 2.  Frontal  bone,  or  bone  of  the  forehead.— 3.  Orbit  of  the 
eye. — 4.  Lachrymal  bone.— 5.  Malar,  or  cheek  bone.— 6.  Upper  jawbone.— 7.  Nasal 
bone,  or  bone  of  the  nose.— 8.  Nippers,  found  on  the  lower  jaw  alone.— 9.  Eight 
true  ribs.— 10.  Humerus,  or  lower  bone  of  the  shoulder. — 11.  Sternum.— 12.  Ulna, 
its  upper  part  forming  the  elbow.— 13.  Ulna. — 14.  Radius,  or  principal  bone  of 
the  arm.— 15.  Small  bones  of  the  knee.— 16.  Large  metacarpal,  or  shank  bone. 
— 17.  Bifurcation  at  the  pasterns,  and  the  two  larger  pasterns  to  each  foot. — 18. 
Sessamoid  bones.— 19.  Bifurcation  of  the  pasterns.— 20.  Lower  jav.-  and  the  grinders. 
— 21.  Vertebrae,  or  bones  of  the  neck.— 22.  Navicular  bones.— 23.  Two-coffin  bones 
to  each  foot. — 24.  Two  smaller  pasterns  to  each  foot. — 25.  Smaller  or  splint-bone. 
— 26.  False  ribs,  with  their  cartilages.— 27.  Patella,  or  bone  of  the  knee. — 28. 
Small  bones  of  the  hock. — 29.  Metatarsals,  or  larger  bones  of  the  hind  leg. — 30. 
Pasterns  and  feet.— 31.  Small  bones  of  the  hock.— 32.  Pointof  thehock.— 33.  Tibia, 
or  proper  leg-bone.— 34.  Thigh-bone.— 35.  Bones  of  the  tail.— 36,  37.  Haunch  and 
pelvis. — 38.  Sacrum. — 39.  Bones  of  the  loins. — 40.  Bones  of  the  back — 41.  Liga 
ment  of  the  neck  and  its  attachments. — 42.  Scapula,  or  shoulder-blade. — 43.  Bones 
of  the  back. — 44.  Ligament  of  the  neck. — 45.  Dentata. — 46.  Atlas. — 47.  Occipital 
bone,  deeply  depressed  below  the  crest  or  ridge  of  the  head. — 48.  Parietal  bone, 
low  in  the  temporal  fossa. — 49.  Horns,  being  processes  or  continuations  of  the 
frontal  bone. 


50  DOMESTIC    ANIMALS. 

DISEASES  IN  CAITLE. 

Hoven,  or  Swelling  of  the  Paunch, 

Is  a  temporary  ailment,  caused  by  eating  too  freely  of  fresh 
and  generally  wet  clover,  or  other  succulent  food.  The  animal 
gorges  the  first  stomach  with  so  much  food,  that  its  contents 
cannot  be  expelled.  Inflammation  of  the  membrane  takes 
place,  and  decomposition  of  the  food  soon  follows.  This  is 
known  by  the  distension  of  the  paunch,  and  difficulty  of 
breathing,  and  unless  speedily  relieved,  suffocation  and  death 
will  ensue.     Both  sheep  and  cattle  are  subject  to  it. 

Remedies.'^ — In  its  early  stages,  when  not  too  severe,  it  has 

^.n  removed  by  administering  some  one  of  the  following 

aedies. 

A  pint  of  gin  poured  down  the  throat. 

From  one  to  two  pints  of  lamp  or  other  oil. 

Strong  brine. 

New  milk  with  one-fifth  its  bulk  of  tar  mixed. 

An  egg-shell  full  of  tar  forced  down  the  throat,  followed  by 
a  second,  if  the  first  fails. 

A  tablespoonful  of  volatile  spirit  of  ammonia,  diluted  with 
water. 

A  wine-glass  full  of  powder,  mixed  with  cold  lard  and  forcea 
in  balls  into  the  stomach. 

A  teaspoonful  of  unslaked  lime  dissolved  in  a  pint  of  warn* 
water,  shaken  and  given  immediately. 

A  pint  of  tolerably  strong  lye. 

The  Proper  Mode  of  giving  the  aboie  Remedies 

Is  for  a  person  to  hold  the  horn  and  cartilage  of  the  nose, 
while  another  seizes  and  draws  out  the  tongue  as  far  as  possi- 
ble, when  the  medicine  is  thrust  below  the  root  of  the  tongue. 
If  liquid,  it  must  be  inserted  by  the  use  of  a  bottle. 

The  prohang  is  used  when  the  former  remedies  are  ineffectual. 
This  consists  of  a  tarred  rope,  or  a  flexible  whip-stalk,  three- 
fourths  of  an  inch  in  diameter,  with  a  swab  or  bulbous  end. 
Two  persons  hold  the  head  of  the  animal,  so  as  to  keep  the 
mouth  in  a  line  with  the  throat,  while  a  third  forces  it  into  the 
stomach,  when  the  gas  finds  a  passage  out.  A  stiff  leather 
tube  with  a  lead  nozzle  pierced  with  holes,  is  best  for  insertion, 
through  which  the  gas  will  readily  escape. 

*  Besides  his  own  experience,  the  writer  has  drawn  from  the  N.  E.  Farmer, 
•the  Albany  Cultivator,  the  American  Agriculturist,  and  other  reliable  America* 
anc  English  works,  some  of  the  remedies  for  diseases  herein  mentioned. 


MODE    OF    GIVING    THE    ABOVE    REMEDIES. 


51 


Some  one  of  the  above  purgatives  should  be  given  after  the 
bloat  has  subsided,  and  careful  feeding  for  some  days  must 
be  observed. 

Light  gruels  are  best  for  allaying  inflammation,  and  restoring 
the  tone  of  the  stomach. 

When  no  other  means  are  available,  the  paunch  may  be 
tapped  with  a  sharp  penknife,  plunging  it  1^  inches  forward 
of  the  hip  bone,  towards  the  last  rib  in  the  left  side.  If  the 
hole  fills  up,  put  in  a  large  goose-quill  tube,  which  to  prevent 
sHpping  into  the  wound,  may  remain  attached  to  the  feather, 
and  the  air  can  escape  through  a  large  hole  in  the  upper  end. 

Prevention  is  vastly  better  than  cure,  and  may  be  always 
secured,  by  not  allowing  hungry  cattle  to  fill  themselves  with 
clover,  roots,  apples,  &c.  When  first  put  upon  such  feed,  it 
should  be  whea  the  dew  and  rain  are  olf,  and  their  stomachs 
are  already  partially  filled  ;  and  they  should  then  be  with- 
drawn before  they  have  gorged  themselves. 

Fig.  15. 


The  Stomach  Pump. 


This  is  a  convenient  instrument  for  extracting  poisonous  sub 
stances  from  the  stomach.  It  is  also  highly  useful  for  ad- 
ministering medicines  and  injections,  and  if  fitted  with  several 
tubes,  one  may  suffice  for  animals  of  any  size.  It  consists  of 
a  syringe,  a,  with  a  side  opening  at  b,  and  another  at  the  bot- 
tom d,  as  shown  in  Fig.  1 6.   .For  injections,  Fig.  15  is  used,  and 


62  DOMESTIC    ANIMALS. 

the  end  of  the  syringe  is  placed  in  a  vessel  containing  the  fluid, 
when  a  probang  or  injection-tube  is  screwed  on  to  the  side 
opening  at  b,  through  which  the  fluid  is  forced  into  the 
stomach  or  rectum,  as  may  be  required.  The  probang  should 
be  a  tube  of  thick  but  elastic  leather,  and  it  may  be  passed 
into  the  mouth,  through  an  aperture  in  a  block,  placed  on 
edge  between  the  teeth,  which  is  easily  done  while  a  person 
holds  the  head  of  the  animal  firmly. 

Choking 

Is  frequently  relieved  by  some  of  the  following  expedients. 

The  use  of  the  probang  or  whip -stock,  mentioned  under  the 
head  of  remedies  for  Hoven,  by  which  the  root  is  forced  into 
the  stomach. 

A  soft  root  may  be  crushed  so  as  to  allow  of  swallowing, 
by  holding  a  smooth  block  against  it,  and  striking  with  a  mal- 
let on  the  opposite  side. 

If  within  arms-length,  the  root  may  be  removed  by  hand. 

It  is  said  this  can  be  done,  by  tying  up  the  fore-leg  with  a 
small  cord,  close  to  the  body,  and  giving  the  animal  a  sudden 
start  with  a  whip  ;  or  by  jerking  the  fore-leg  out  forward. 

Or  pour  down  the  throat  a  pint  bottle  full  of  soft  soap, 
mixed  with  sufficient  hot  water  to  make  it  run  freely. 

Prevention  consists  in  cutting  the  roots  ;  not  feeding  them 
when  the  animals  are  very  hungry,  and  not  disturbing  them 
while  eating. 

Inflammation  of  the  Stomach. 

This  is  frequently  produced  by  a  sudden  change  from  dry 
to  green  food,  and  some  other  causes. 

Epsom  salts,  castor  oil,  sulphur,  and  carbonate  of  soda,  in 
sufficient  quantity  to  purge  freely,  are  good  remedies. 

It  may  be  prevented  by  changing  the  food  gradually. 

Mange,  or  Scab. 

This  is  denoted  by  the  animal  rubbing  the  hah*  oft*  about 
ihe  eyes  and  other  parts.  The  skin  is  scaly  or  scabby,  some- 
times appearing  like  a  large  seed-Avart. 

Bemedies. — Rub  the  spots  Avith  sulphur  and  lard,  after  scra- 
ping and  washing  with  soap. 

When  the  skin  is  cracked,  take  sulphur,  1  lb. ;  turpentine, 
\  lb.  ;  unguentum,  (or  mercurial  ointment,)  2  ounces ;  linseed 
oil,  1  pint.     Melt  the  turpentine  and  warm  the  oil,  and  when 


HOLLOW  HORN JAUNDICE.  53 

partly  cooled,  stir  in  the  sulphur  ;  when  cold,  add  the  unguen- 
tum,  mixing  all  well.  Rub  this  thoroughly  with  the  hand  on 
the  parts  atfected. 

We  have  no  doubt  this,  like  scab  in  sheep  and  itch  in  the 
human  species,  will  be  found,  on  close  investigation,  to  be 
caused  by  minute  insects  located  in  the  skin.  Salt  and  water 
ought,  in  that  case,  to  be  a  good  remedy. 

Hollow  Horn,  or  Horn  Ail. 

This  is  not  unfrequently  holloiv  stomach,  and  very  often 
follows  stinted  fare,  hard  usage,  and  exposure  to  cold.  We 
have  noticed  this  as  most  prevalent  among  oxen  that  have 
done  a  severe  winter's  work. 

Syin2otoms. — Bloody  urine  ;  swollen  udder ;  shaking  the 
head ;  eyes  and  head  swollen ;  standing  with  the  head  against 
a  fence  or  barn ;  eyes  dull  and  sunken,  and  horns  cold. 

Remedies. — Bleed  and  physic,  shelter  and  feed  properly. 

Take  a  half  pint  of  good  vinegar,  two  tablespoonfuls  of 
salt,  one  teaspoonful  of  pepper,  and  mix  and  pour  into  each 
ear,  holding  the  head  on  one  side  for  two  minutes. 

Bore  with  a  large  gimlet  on  the  under  side  of  the  horn, 
three  or  four  inches  from  the  head  ;  and  if  hollow,  bore  nearer 
the  head  and  let  out  all  the  matter,  and  syringe  two  or  three 
times  a  day  with  salt  and  water,  or  soap-suds,  or  salt  and 
Ainegar. 

Spirits  of  turpentine  rubbed  in  around  the  base  of  the  horns, 
will  arrest  the  djsease  in  its  incipient  stages. 

Pour  a  spoonful  of  boiling  hot  brimstone  into  the  cavity  be- 
tween the  horns. 

Pour  a  teakettle  of  boiling  water  on  the  horns,  holding  so 
as  to  prevent  injury  to  the  other  parts. 

Soot  and  pepper  given  internally  are  good. 

Jaundice,  or  Yellows. 

This  is  owing  to  gall-stones  or  calculi,  which  occasionally 
accumulate  in  large  numbers,  and  is  sometimes  owing  to  in- 
creased or  altered  quality  of  the  bile.  It  is  manifested  by  the 
yellowness  of  the  eye  and  skin,  and  high  color  of  the  urine, 
and  poor  appetite. 

Remedies. — Bleed,  and  purge  with  Epsom  salts. 

If  taken  in  season,  2  ounces  of  ground  mustard  may '  o 
mixed  with  a  liquid,  and  given  twice  a  day. 

Green  food  is  a  good  preventive. 
5* 


54  DOMESTIC    ANIMALS. 


Mad  Itch. 

•  This  disease  exists  in  some  of  the  Western  states,  and  shows 
itself  by  jerking  of  the  head,  and  itching  around  the  nose  and 
base  of  tlie  horns.  They  will  hck  their  sides  and  backs,  and 
jerk  and  hiccup  till  they  fill  themselves  with  wind  ;  afterwards 
they  froth  at  the  mouth,  and  in  24  hours  die  ra\ing  mad. 

Remedy. — Give  as  much  soot  and  salt  as  the  animal  will 
eat ;  soon  after,  give  f  or  1  lb.  of  brimstone  or  sulphur ;  and 
8  hours  after,  as  many  salts. 

Bloody  Murrain,  or  Red  Water. 

This  disease  first  shows  itself  in  a  cough,  then  heaving  of 
the  flanks,  with  bloody,  black,  and  foetid  eracuations,  tender- 
ness over  the  loins,  and  coldness  of  the  horns.  Tumors  and 
biles  sometimes  appear.  The  animal  holds  down  the  head, 
moans,  is  restless,  and  staggers  when  walking. 

Causes. — We  have  lost  several  animals  by  this  fatal  disease, 
and  are  not  aware  of  ha\dng  cured  any  when  severely  attacked. 
In  repeated  instances,  we  have  seen  large  flukes  taken  out  of 
the  fiver,  strongly  resembling  the  common  leech,  which  abounds 
in  many  of  our  swampy  lands.  It  is  certain  that  on  new,  low 
swamps  and  clay  lands,  cattle  are  most  liable  to  it ;  and  when 
they  have  been  subject  to  repeated  attacks  in  such  locafities, 
clearing;  and  drainino;  have  checked  it. 

Youatt  attributes  it  to  certain  kinds  of  forage,  which  are  pe- 
culiar to  the  above  situations.  We  are  rather  inclined  to  as- 
cribe it  to  exposure,  to  excessive  dampness,  and  especially  to 
miasma ;  for  although  the  brute  creation  are  perhaps  less  sen- 
sitive to  these  influences  than  man,  yet,  as  they  are  governed 
by  the  same  unvarying  laws  of  nature,  when  subjected  to 
■conditions  totally  unsuited  to  their  economy,  they  must  suff'er 
equally  in  kind,  though  probably  not  in  degree,  with  the  more 
refined  human  frame.  But  it  is  e\-ident  the  disease,  its  causes, 
and  remedies,  are  as  yet  imperfectly  understood. 

Remedies. — However  intelligent  men  may  difl^er  as  to  its 
causes,  all  agree  that  the  animal  should  first  be  bled,  and  then 
thoroughly  purged.  In  obstinate  cases,  this  last  is  a  difficult 
matter.  We  have  given  rejDeated  doses  of  powerful  cathartics 
without  producing  any  effect ;  and  whenever  the  medicine  is 
inoperative,  death  speedily  follows. 

■  Large  doses  of  common  salt,  or  Epsom  salts  dissolved  in 
water,  are  good  purgatives,  and  if  the  animal  neglects  drink- 


HOOF   AIL.  55 

ing  after  takkig  them,  he  should  be  drenched  with  copious 
draughts  of  water.  These  should  be  repeated  every  few 
hours,  if  ineffectual. 

Injections  are  sometimes  useful,  when  medicine  fails  to  act. 
These  may  be  made  of  soap  and  water ;  or  take  2  or  3  gills  of 
oats  boiled,  3  drachms  saltpetre,  1^  oz.  linseed  oil,  mix  and 
use  tliem  when  warm. 

The  opening  of  the  bowels  may  be  followed  with  a  pint  of 
linseed  oil,  as  an  additional  and  gentle  laxative. 

When  the  animal  begins  to  recover,  gentle  astringents  and 
tonics  may  be  given. 

Preventives. — We  have  more  confidence  in  preventives  than 
in  remedies.  Good  keep,  shelter,  dryness,  and  clean  pastures, 
will  generally  prevent  attack.  The  cattle  should  at  all  times 
be  supplied  with  two  or  three  troughs  under  cover,  on  the  sides 
and  bottoms  of  which  tar  should  be  plentifully  spread.  Let 
equal  portions  of  salt  and  slaked  lime  be  in  one ;  salt  and 
wood  ashes  in  another ;  and  salt  and  brimstone  in  a  third. 
Many  farmers  have  entirely  avoided  this  disease  while  using 
one  or  more  of  these,  when  they  annually  lost  many  by  it  pre- 
viously. 

Hoof  Ail 

Is  indicated  by  lameness,  fever,  and  a  soft  swelling  just  above 
the  hoof. 

Remedies. — Carefully  wash  the  foot  in  warm  soap-suds,  and 
while  still  damp,  apply  between  the  claws  on  the  afifected  part 
from  one  to  three  grains  of  corrosive  sublimate.  If  it  does  not 
fully  adhere,  it  must  be  mixed  with  hog's  lard,  but  it  should 
be  so  applied  as  to  be  out  of  the  reach  of  the  animal's  tongue, 
as  it  is  a  powerful  poison,  and  the  extreme  irritability  of  the 
feet  will  induce  him  to  lick  them. 

The  clav\^  is  efficiently  cleansed,  by  drawing  a  cord  briskly 
through  it,  when  either  of  the  above  applications,  or  blue  vitriol 
put  on  two  or  three  times  a  day,  or  spirits  of  turpentine,  will 
effect  a  cure. 

It  is  sometimes  cured  by  putting  the  animals  in  the  stan- 
chions, and  applying  a  sharp  chisel  three-fourths  of  an  inch  from 
the  toe,  and  striking  it  with  a  mallet  till  it  is  cut  off.  If  it  does 
not  bleed  freely,  cut  off  shavmgs  till  it  does.  If  the  animal  is 
refractory,  let  a  person  hold  up  the  opposite  foot.  Keep  them 
in  the  stable  two  or  three  days,  and  out  of  the  mud  for  a 
week. 


56  DOMESTIC    ANIMALS. 


Loss  of  Gnd 


Is  loss  of  appetite,  prostration,  and  general  ill-health. 

Remedies. — Give  a  warm  bran  mash,  with  good  hay,  and 
warm  water  with  salt. 

An  aloe  tincture,  made  with  brandy  and  ginger,  is  good. 

Afterwards  give  good,  dry,  nourishing  food ;  and  bitter  in- 
fusions, chamomile  flowers,  hoarhound,  oak  bark,  &c.,  in  beer. 

Scours,  or  Diarrhoea. 

A  common  remedy,  is  to  boil  the  bark  of  white  oak,  white 
pine,  and  beech,  and  give  a  strong  infusion  in  bran.  If  they 
refuse  to  eat  it,  pour  it  down.  The  oak  is  astringent,  and  the 
pine  and  beech  soothing  and  healing. 

Warbles 

Are  grubs,  the  egg  of  which  is  deposited  in  the  back  of  cattle 
by  the  gad-fly,  {CEstrus  hovis.)  They  are  discernible  by  a  pro- 
tuberance or  swelling  on  the  back.  They  may  be  pressed  out 
by  the  th\mib  and  finger  ;  or  burnt  out  by  plunging  a  hot  wire 
in  them ;  or  a  few  apphcations  of  strong  brine  will  remove 
them. 

Wounds 

In  cattle  are  readily  healed,  when  the  animal's  blood  is  in  good 
order,  by  applying  a  salve  made  of  1  oz.  green  copperas  ;  2 
oz.  white  vitriol ;  2  oz.  salt ;  2  oz.  linseed  oil ;  8  oz.  molasses. 
Boil  over  a  slow  fire  15  minutes  in  a  pint  of  urine,  and  when 
almost  cold,  add  1  oz.  oil  of  vitriol,  and  4  oz.  spirits  turpentine. 
Apply  it  with  a  feather  to  the  wound,  and  cure  soon  follows. 

Milk,  or  Puerperal  Fever, 

Is  a  common  disease  with  cows  in  high  condition,  at  the  time 
of  calving.  It  may,  in  almost  every  case,  be  avoided,  by  keep- 
ing them  in  moderate  feed  and  flesh. 

Remedies. — Bleed  freely,  say  6  to  10  quarts,  according  to 
the  circulation  of  the  blood;  then  give  1  to  li  lbs.  of  Epsom 
salts,  according  to  the  size  of  the  beast,  to  be  repeated  in  half 
lb.  doses  every  six  hours,  till  she  purges  freely. 

Injections  should  always  be  given  when  purgatives  are  tardy 
in  their  operation. 


GARGET SORE  TEATS WARPS.  67 


Caked  Bag 

May  be  removed  by  simmering  the  bark  of  the  root  of  bit- 
ter-sweet in  lard,  till  it  becomes  very  yellow.  When  cool, 
apply  it  to  the  swollen  udder  once  in  8  or  10  hom-s ;  or  wash 
it  several  times  a  day  in  cold  water. 

A  pint  of  horseradish,  fed  once  a  day,  cut  up  with  potatoes 
or  meal,  is  useful  for  the  same  purpose. 

This  is  also  a  tonic,  helps  the  appetite,  and  is  good  for  oxen 
subject  to  heat. 

Garget 

Is  a  more  intense  degree  of  inflammation  than  exists  in  caked 
bag  and  sore,  swollen  teats,  and  shows  itself  in  hard  bunches 
on  the  udder. 

The  cow  should  be  bled,  and  take  a  large  dose  of  physic ; 
then  wash  the  udder  as  in  caked  bag. 

Repeated  doses  of  sulphur  is  a  good  remedy. 

Garget,  or  scoke  root,  given  of  the  size  of  a  large  finger, 
grated  and  fed  in  their  food,  is  a  general  application  with  farm- 
ers. The  garget  plant  grows  from  three  to  six  feet  high,  with 
a  purple  stalk,  and  strings  of  berries  hanging  down  between 
the  branches. 

Sore  Teats 

May  be  healed  hy  rubbing  with  goose  oil,  cream,  new  milk ; 
or  make  the  same  applications  for  it  as  for  caked  bag.  The 
bag  and  teats  should  be  well  cleansed  with  warm  soft  water,  if 
to  be  followed  b}^  any  ointment. 

The  following  application  is  recommended  by  Youatt :  One 
ounce  of  yellow  wax  and  three  of  lard  ;  melt  together,  and 
when  cooling,  rub  in  one  quarter  ounce  of  sugar  of  lead,  and  a 
drachm  of  alum  finely  powdered. 

Warts 

Are  of  two  kinds  ;  the  first,  on  the  outer  skin,  may  be  re- 
moved by  rubbing  with  camphorated  olive  oil.  The  others 
penetrate  into  the  flesh,  and  may  be  removed  by  a  ligature  of 
fine  twine,  or  silk,  or  india-rubber  drawn  into  a  string,  and  tied 
tightly  around  the  wart,  which  falls  off  in  a  few  days. 

Remedies. — Nitrate  of  silver,  (lunar  caustic,)  apphed  to  the 
wart,  will  remove  it,  but  it  produces  a  sore. 

Apply  a  strong  wash  of  alum. 


58  DOMESTIC     \NIMALS. 

Rub  ■with  the  juice  of  milk-weed. 
Poultice  with  grated  carrot. 

Cut  off  the  wart  with  sharp  scissors,  when  the  cow  is  dry.  It 
will  bleed  little,  and  soon  heal. 

Sore  Necks  on  Working  Oxen. 

These  occur  when  worked  in  wet  weather,  or  with  bad  yokes. 
The  remedy  is,  rub  with  a  heahng  apphcation.  The  preventive 
is,  good  yokes ;  the  apphcation  of  grease  ;  or  a  decoction  of 
white  or  yellow  oak  bark  applied  to  the  affected  parts.  Or, 
a  better  preventive  is  a  canvass  or  leather  cap  to  protect  the 
neck  entirely  from  the  storm. 

The  Bite  of  Poisonous  Snakes 

May  be  cured  by  shaking  together  equal  parts  of  olive  oil 
and  hartshoni,  and  rubbing  the  wound  and  adjacent  parts 
three  or  four  times  a  day.  For  a  full-grown  animal,  one  quart 
of  ohve  oil  and  an  ounce  of  hartshorn  should  be  administered 
internallv,  in  addition  to  the  above. 

For  Stings  of  Bees,  Hornets,  &c. 

Apply  warm  vinegar  and  salt,  rubbing  the  parts  thoroughly. 
For  a  Forming  Tumor. 

Rub  thoroughly  with  strong  brine,  or  a  solution  of  sal  ammo- 
niac dissolved  in  eight  times  its  weight  of  water.  If  the  tumor 
comes  to  a  head,  open  it  near  the  bottom  with  a  lancet ;  or 
place  a  seton  in  it  so  as  to  admit  the  escape  of  purulent  matter. 

lice  and  Vermin 

Sometimes  abound  on  cattle  during  the  latter  part  of  winter 
and  spring.  These  are  generally  the  result  of  mange,  which 
is  itself  the  effect  of  ill-feeding  and  ill-condition.  They  are 
removed  with  the  cause.  We  doubt  if  they  can  be  perma- 
nently kept  off,  where  the  animal  is  losing  flesh  and  health. 

Remedies. — Restore  the  health  and  condition,  and  sprinkle 
sand,  ashes,  or  dirt  plentifully  around  the  roots  of  the  horns, 
and  along  the  ridge  of  the  neck  and  back. 

A  hberal  application  of  train  or  other  oil  has  nearly  a  simi- 
lar effect. 
•  Never  apply  an  ointment  containing  corrosive  sublimate  or 


THE    TREMBLES.  59 

other  poison,  as  it  may  be  licked  by  the  animal  or  its  fellows, 
who  may  thus  become  seriously  poisoned. 

The  Trembles, 

Producing  milk  sickness  (a  most  fatal  disease)  in  the  human 
family,  from  eating  the  milk  or  flesh  of  animals  affected  by  it. 
This  disease,  which  exists  principally  in  the  region  of  the  Wa- 
bash River,  is  supposed  by  Dr.  Drake  to  be  owing  to  the  poi- 
son oak,  (Rhus  Toxicodendron,)  or  poison  vine,  (Radicans,) 
which  the  animals  eat. 

Symptoms. — The  animal  mopes,  is  feverish  and  costive,  but 
apparently  preserves  its  appetite.  The  next  stage  of  the  dis- 
ease is  faintness  and  vertigo,  which  is  shown  when  the  animal 
is  put  upon  exertion,  being  followed  by  excessive  tremhling  and 
entire  prostration. 

Remedy. — Almost  ever}^  cathartic  has  been  tried  in  vain. 
Indian  corn,  both  dry  and  green,  has  been  fed  to  all  animals 
accustomed  to  eating  it,  and  when  they  can  be  induced  to  feed 
upon  it  freely,  purging  is  generally  secured.  Rest  of  the  ani- 
mal is  absolutely  essential  while  the  disease  continues,  and  is 
itself  an  effectual  remedy  in  mild  cases. 

Besides  the  diseases  enumerated,  there  are  occasional  epi- 
demics, such  as  black  tongue,  black  foot,  or  foot  root,  &c.,  which 
carry  off  great  numbers  of  animals.  Remedies  for  these  are 
frequently  not  discovered,  and  the  epidemic  is  allowed  to  run 
its  course  unchecked.  The  only  preventives  are  such  care, 
food,  and  management  as  the  experienced  herdsman  knows  t(i 
be  best  suited  to  the  maintenance  of  the  health  and  thrift  of 
his  stock. 

Note. — Some  ailments  wUl  be  found  under  the  head  of  dis- 
eases of  the  other  animals  mentioned  in  this  work,  the  general 
resemblance  of  which  to  each  other  will  justify  nearly  a  similar 
treatment. 

If  intelligent  farriers  are  at  hand,  they  may  sometimes  be 
called  in  with  advantage  ;  though  we  acknowledge  our  a^^trust 
of  the  quackery  of  most  of  those  passing  under  this  tiMe. 
There  is  little  science  or  intelligent  study  in  the  composition  of 
this  class,  the  world  over ;  and  much  of  their  practice  is  the 
merest  empiricis*m.  The  owner  should  see  to  it,  if  he  employs 
one  of  whose  attainm.^r.ts  he  is  doubtful,  that  neither  medicines 
nor  operations  be  used,  unnecessarily  severe  or  hazardous  to  the 
animal.     Especially,  should  the  diabohcal  practice  be  interdict- 


60  DOMESTIC    ANIMALS. 

ed,  of  the  abundant  and  indiscriminate  use  of  poisons,  boiling 
oils,  turpentine,  and  tar,  and  the  hot  iron  apphed  to  the  sensi- 
tive wound  or  naked  flesh.  If  certain  or  effectual  remedies 
for  the  removal  of  disease  cannot  he  appAed,  such  as  aug- 
ment the  suffering  or  endanger  the  life  of  the  poor  dumb 
things,  may  at  least  be  avoided. 


CHAPTER    III. 

THE  DAIRY. 

Cows  for  the  Dairy. 

From  what  has  been  said  on  the  various  characteristics  of 
the  diff"erent  breeds  of  cattle,  it  must  be  evident,  that  no  very 
definite  criteria  of  excellence  can  be  given  for  all  good  dairy 
cows.  But  there  are  certain  points  in  a  good  milker,  that  can 
hardly  be  mistaken. 

She  should  be  descended  from  the  best  milking  stock  ;  her 
head  should  be  small  or  of  medium  size,  muzzle  fine,  and  nos- 
trils flexible  and  expanded  ;  face  long,  slender,  and  dishing ; 
cheeks  thin ;  eyes  full,  mild,  and  prominent ;  horns  delicate 
and  waxy,  and  they  may  be '  either  branching,  lopped,  crum- 
pled, or  hornless  ;  long,  thin,  lively  ear,  and  the  inside  of  an 
orange  color  ;  neck  thin  and  small  at  its  junction  with  the 
head ;  deep  chest,  but  not  too  heavy  before ;  back  level  and 
broad  ;  well  ribbed  ;  belly  large  ;  low  flank ;  Tv4de  thighs, 
but  thin  ;  short  legs,  and  standing  well  apart ;  large  milking 
veins  ;  loose,  capacious  udder,  coming  well  out  behind  ;  good 
teats  ;  loose,  mellow  skin,  of  a  deep  yellow ;  and  a  fine,  thick 
Goat  of  glossy  hair ;  and  she  must  be  of  a  good  disposition, 
and  free  from  tricks. 

Yet,  with  all  the  skill  of  a  well-practised  taste  in  the  selec- 
tion of  animals,  the  dairyman  will  frequently  find  his  theories 
and  results  at  sad  variance.  One  may  sometimes  select  a  fine 
animal,  with  every  appearance  of  good  milking  qualities,  which 
is  but  a  medium  cow  at  the  pail ;  and  another,  that  hardly 
seems  worthy  of  notice,  and  which  sets  at  defiance  many  es- 
tablished milking  points,  and  all  preconceived  notions  of  sym- 
metry, may  yet  prove  a  good  milker.  A  cow  that  runs  to 
flesh  while  in  milk,  is  generally  an  indiff'erent  animal  for  the 


MILKING.  61 

dairy.  Perfection  in  a  cow,  consists  in  converting  all  slie  eats 
into  milk  while  yielding  it,  and  when  dry,  in  turning  all  she 
consumes  into  valuable  meat. 

Management  of  Dairy  Cows. 

A  cow  may  have  her  first  calf  when  between  two  and  three 
years  of  age,  according  to  her  size  and  development.  After 
calving,  she  should  be  stinted  in  her  food  for  two  or  three 
days,  and  not  fed  freely  for  a  week.  Avoid  fat  in  a  breeding 
cow.  Too  high  feeding  is  the  cause  of  milk-fever,  caked  bag, 
garget,  and  a  host  of  evils  ;  and  very  poor  feed  is  almost 
equally  objectionable. 

The  average  time  of  a  cow  with  young,  is  from  40  to  41 
weeks  ;  but  they  sometimes  go  only  34,  and  occasionally  over- 
run 44. 

A  dry,  unoccupied  stall  or  yard  is  best  for  her  to  calve  in ; 
and  if  there  is  any  serious  delay  or  difficulty  in  the  operation, 
she  may  be  assisted  by  placing  the  foetus  in  the  right  position, 
and  gently  pulling  it,  with  every  throe  of  the  dam.  After  the 
calf  has  drawn  all  he  wants  at  morning  and  evening,  the  bag 
should  be  thoroughly  and  quickly  emptied  of  all  the  milk.  If 
strong  and  vigorous,  the  calf  is  the  best  doctor  for  garget  or 
caked  bag.  He  may  be  allowed  to  suck  the  cow  or  not,  at 
the  option  of  the  owner ;  there  are  reasons  for  and  against  the 
practice,  as  will  be  seen  under  the  head  of  rearing  calves,  and 
each  person  must  determine  in  his  own  case  on  which  side  the 
balance  lies. 

Milking. 

This  is  an  important  operation,  and  on  its  proper  perform- 
ance depends  much  of  the  success  of  the  dairyman.  A  cow 
regularly,  gently,  yet  quickly  and  thoroughly  milked,  will  give 
much  more  than  if  neglected.  If  a  herd  of  cows  be  separated 
into  two  divisions,  each  yielding  the  same  quantity  of  milk,  and 
one  is  given  to  a  good  milker,  and  the  other  to  a  shiftless  or 
lazy  one,  the  latter  will  speedily  reduce  his  milk  much  below 
the  quantity  obtained  by  the  former ;  and  if  the  milkers  then 
exchange  cows,  they  will  be  found  to  change  quantity  too, 
those  before  affording  the  least,  soon  giving  the  most  An  in- 
different milker  ought  never  to  be  tolerated  in  a  herd,  good 
ones  are  cheaper  at  double  the  price.  It  is  best  to  milk  at  in- 
tervals of  about  1 2  hours  ;  which  may  be  done  when  DastureR 

G 


63  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS. 

are  convenient,  or  cows  are  soiled  or  fed  in  the  yard.  But  as 
this  is  not  often  the  case  in  the  season  of  green  food,  they 
should  be  milked  early  in  the  morning  and  turned  into  pasture, 
to  fill  themselves  before  the  sun  is  oppressive ;  and  if  they  are 
to  be  kept  up  at  night,  let  them  browse  in  the  pasture  as  long 
as  possible,  before  they  are  brought  to  the  yard. 


MILK 

Is  produced  from  the  females  of  all  the  warm-blooded  am- 
mals,  which  are  enumerated  among  the  mammalia?.  The  milk 
of  several  animals  is  employed  for  domestic  purposes,  among 
different  nations.  That  of  the  camel  is  used  by  the  Arabs  ; 
the  milk  of  the  ass  by  the  Spaniards,  the  Maltese,  and  the  in- 
habitants of  the  Levant ;  that  of  the  mare  by  the  Cossacks, 
the  Kirgheez,  and  other  Tartars  ;  and  that  of  the  goat,  the  ewe, 
and  the  cow,  by  most  of  the  ancient,  and  with  few  exceptions, 
by  every  modern  European  nation.  Within  the  last  century, 
however,  the  use  of  all  excepting  cow's  milk  has  been  almost 
entirely  discarded,  among  the  most  highly  civilized  people. 

If  Ave  except  some  few  Welsh  and  Swiss,  or  other  emigrants, 
who  resort  to  the  goat  and  ewe  for  their  dairy  materials,  for 
the  first  few  years  of  their  residence  here,  the  cow  is  the  only 
animal  which  is  employed  in  America  for  producing  milk. 
For  this,  she  is  pre-eminently  fitted,  and  the  modern  improve- 
ment of  this  invaluable  animal  has  carried  her  product  of  milk 
almost  as  far  as  can  be  reasonably  looked  for  from  a  given 
amount  of  food  ;  and  although  this  is  of  about  the  average 
richness  of  the  goat  and  ewe,  and  before  that  of  the  ass,  the 
quantity  she  yields  is  frequently  as  60  to  1,  in  favor  of  the 
cow,  over  the  first  two  competitors.  As  a  milk-gi\-ing  animal, 
the  cow  is  the  best  fitted  for  the  purposes  of  civihzed  man ; 
and  she  is  made  to  contribute,  not  only  to  his  health,  his  com- 
fort, and  his  economy,  but  to  many  of  his  choicest  luxuries. 
Milk  contains  every  element  of  nutrition  necessary  to  animal 
existence  ;  and  man  can  subsist,  with  unimpaired  health  and 
strength,  if  hmited  to  this  food  alone. 


The  Constituents  of  Milk 

Are  butter,  which  varies  from  2  to  6  per  cent. ;  casein  oi 
cheese,  usually  4  to  5,  but  sometimes  varying  from  3  to  15 
per  cent. ;  (the  last  excessive  quantity,  yielded  only  by  the  first 


aUANriTY  AND  CHARACTER  OF  MILK.        63 

milk  after  calving ;)  milk-sugar,  4  to  6  ;  salts  or  saline  matter, 
0.2  to  0.6  ;  and  water,  80  to  89. 

There  is  muck  diversity  in  the  product  and  quality  of  milk 
from  cows  of  the  same  breed,  the  same  food,  and  other  cir- 
cumstances and  conditions,  apparently  equal.  Thus,  of  a  herd 
of  22,  chiefly  Ayrshire,  one  gave  84  quarts  in  one  week,  which 
afforded  3^  lbs.  of  butter ;  two  others  in  the  same  time  gave 
86,  yielding  5^  lbs. ;  and  a  fourth  gave  88  quarts,  making  7  lbs. 

The  amount  of  butter,  however,  which  a  given  quantity  of 
milk  will  produce,  is  not  the  only  criterion  of  the  value  of  the 
milk,  except  for  this  purpose  alone.  Some  cows  will  yield 
more  butter,  others  will  produce  more  cheese ;  while  for  con- 
sumption, another  may  partially  compensate,  in  the  increased 
quantity  of  milk-sugar,  and  the  saline  matters,  for  a  deficiency 
of  both  the  other  ingredients.  But  for  dairy  purposes,  butter 
and  cheese  are  the  only  measure  of  the  value  of  milk ;  and  a 
cow  is  eiiteemed  good  or  indifterent,  as  she  gives  one  or  the 
other  in  the  greatest  abundance. 

Circoimstances  which  modify  the  Quantity  and  Character  of 

Milk. 

Besides  the  accidental  variation  in  the  quantity  and  quality 
of  milk  in  different  animals,  before  adverted  to,  there  are 
many  reliable  causes  which  influence  both.  Of  these,  parent- 
age has  a  most  decided  and  uniform  influence,  frequently 
modified,  however,  in  the  particular  individual,  by  some  per- 
sonal and  controlling  causes.  But  a  cow,  whose  maternal  an- 
cestry on  both  sides  are  choice  milkers,  is  almost  certain  to 
resemble  them. 

Food  influences  the  quantity,  rather  than  the  quality. 
Boussingault  tried  numerous  experiments,  with  cows  fed  on 
various  kinds  of  food,  and  found  the  difference  hardly  ap- 
preciable in  the  quality  of  milk.  Its  true  benefit  is  to  be 
looked  for  in  the  increased  quantity,  through  which,  the 
valuable  ingredients  are  distributed  in  nearly  the  same  pro- 
portion, as  when  the  product  is  materially  lessened.  By 
quality  we  mean  to  be  understood,  the  amount  of  the  in- 
gredients, valuable  for  nutrition  only ;  for  it  is  certain,  that 
there  is  a  rich  aromatic  flavor,  not  only  in  milk,  but  in  butter 
and  cheese,  which  is  afforded  in  various  articles  of  food,  and 
especially  by  the  fresh  green  herbage  which  abounds  in  the 
pastures  from  spring  to  autumn. 

Activity  or  rest  has  a  great  effect  on  both  quantity  and 


64  DOMESTIC    ANIMALS. 

quality.  Tlie  less  action,  and  the  more  quiet  and  rest,  the 
greater  the  amount  of  milk  and  butter.  But  exercise  is  ab- 
solutely essential  to  the  production  of  cheese.  Butter  may 
be  made  from  cows  confined  in  a  stable,  but  cheese  can  only 
be  profitably  made  from  animals  at  pasture.  It  is  supposed 
by  physiologists,  that  the  exercise  in  gathering  their  food, 
rather  than  any  pecuharity  in  its  character,  is  necessary  to 
convert  the  nitrogenized  tissues  into  the  nitrogenized  principle 
of  caseum  or  cheese. 

The  time  from  calving,  has  also  its  effect.  The  first  milk 
drawn  from  a  cow  after  calving,  has  been  found  to  yield  over 
15  per  cent,  of  casein,  while  in  its  ordinary  state  it  gives 
only  three  to  five  and  a  half.  As  the  quantity  of  milk  dimin- 
ishes in  a  farrow  cow,  the  quality  improves  within  certain 
limits.  Pregnancy  affects  the  quality  injuriously,  and  espe- 
cially towards  its  latter  stages ;  and  a  cow  that  is  predisposed 
to  giving  milk,  should  be  dried  off  a  few  weeks  before  its  ex- 
piration, as  it  is  then  unfit  for  use. 

Fat  cows  give  poorer  milk  than  such  as  are  moderately 
lean ;  and  young  animals  do  not  come  up  to  the  maximum  of 
their  quality,  till  after  their  third  or  fourth  calving. 

The  milk  fiust  drawn  from  the  udder,  will  yield  only  an 
eighth,  and  somt-times  even  a  much  less  proportion  of  cream, 
than  the  strippings ;  and  the  milk  which  is  drawn  three  times 
a  day,  is  greatly  inferior  to  such  as  is  taken  but  once,  though 
the  latter  is  less  abundant. 

Excitement,  or  fretfulness ;  change  of  locality,  or  to  a  dif- 
ferent herd,  with  new  companions  ;  separation  from  her  calf  ; 
periodical  heat ;  annc  vance  from  flies,  or  worry  from  dogs  ; 
exposure  to  storms,  severe  cold,  or  an  oppressive  sun,  and 
many  similar  causes,  diminish  the  quantity  of  milk  and  butter ; 
but  some  of  these  may  reasonably  be  expected  to  increase 
the  proportion  of  its  casein. 

Dr.  Playfair  found  that  the  quantity  of  butter  in  the  evening 
milk,  after  the  cow  had  been  at  pasture  all  day,  was  3.7  per 
cent.,  while  the  casein  was  5.4;  after  lying  quietly  all  night, 
the  milk  from  the  same  cow,  on  the  following  morning,  con- 
tained 5.6  per  cent,  of  butter,  and  only  3.9  of  casein.  In 
stabling  the  cow,  the  butter  was  invariably  in  greater  propor- 
tion than  when  allowed  to  ramble  in  the  pasture  ;  and  the 
casein,  with  a  single  exception,  was  equally  diminished. 


CREAM. 


65 


Lactometer,  or  Cream  Guage. 


Fig.  1*7,  is  a 
number  of  glass 
tubes  of  equal 
size,  set  in  a 
frame  called  a  lac- 
tometer or  cream 
guage.  If  milk 
from  different 
cows  be  set  in 
these,  the  depth 
of  the  cream 
will  indicate  their 
comparative  rich- 
ness. 


Cream. 

If  milk  be  immediately  set  away  in  shallow  vessels,  after 
being  taken  from  the  cow,  the  cream  rises  to  the  surface,  car- 
rying with  it  most  of  the  butter  contained  in  the  milk,  and 
much  of  its  casein  also.  Hence,  the  great  nutritive  properties 
of  buttermilk,  which  retains  the  casein  in  very  large  pro- 
portions, much  of  it  being  rejected  by  the  butter  in  its  sepa- 
ration from  the  cream. 

A  temperature  below  34°,  will  prevent  the  cream  from 
rising  in  any  considerable  quantity,  and  preserve  the  milk  un- 
altered for  some  weeks.  Coagulating  the  milk  from  any 
cause,  will  equally  prevent  the  separation  of  the  cream.  The 
elevation  of  temperature  within  certain  hmits,  hastens  the 
separation.  Thus,  at  50°,  the  cream  will  mostly  have  risen 
in  36  hours ;  at  55°,  m  24 ;  at  68°,  in  18  or  20;  and  at  77°, 
in  10  or  12  hours. 

Heating  the  milk  near  the  boihng  point,  and  then  setting  it 
away  and  allowing  it  to  remain  undisturbed,  will  soon  cause 
the  cream  to  rise.  In  the  celebrated  Orange  dairy,  near 
Baltimore,  Md.,  this  system  was  practised,  by  which,  not 
only  most  of  the  cream  was  secured  for  butter,  but  in  con- 
sequence of  its  rapid  separation,  the  skimmed  milk  was  sent 
to  market  vfithin  a  few  hours  after  being  drawn ;  and  the 
scalding  imparted  to  it  an  agreeable  flavor  and  apparent 
richness,  which  it  did  not  really  possess. 

The  celebrated  clouted  cream  of  Devonshire,  England,  and 
the  butter    made   from  it,  contains  an   unusual  quantity   of 

6* 


66  :?oMEsric  animals. 

casein,  the  consequence  of  heating  the  milk.  "  It  is  prepared 
by  straining  the  warm  milk  into  large  shallow  pans  into  which 
a  little  water  has  previously  been  put,  allowing  these  to  stand 
from  six  to  twelve  hours,  and  then  carefully  heating  them 
over  a  slow  fire,  or  on  a  hot  plate,  till  the  milk  approaches 
the  boiling  point.  The  milk,  however,  must  not  actually 
boil,  nor  must  the  skin  of  the  cream  be  broken.  The  dishes 
are  now  removed  into  the  dairy,  and  allowed  to  cool.  In 
summer  the  cream  should  be  churned  on  the  following 
day ;  in  winter  it  may  stand  over  two  days.  The  quantity 
of  cream  obtained  is  said  to  be  one-fourth  greater  by  this 
method,  and  the  milk  which  is  left  is  proportionably  poor." — 
[Jolmston.l 

BUTTER. 

Electricity 

Has  much  to  do  with  the  changes  in  milk,  as  in  all  other 
substances.  Glass  milk-pans  might,  therefore,  be  supposed 
to  be  the  best  vessels  for  keeping  the  milk  unchanged  and 
sweet. 

It  may  possibly  not  afford  any  practical  result,  yet  intelli- 
gent experiments  for  introducing  a  stream  of  electricity  might 
well  be  justified,  to  aid  in  the  separation  of  the  butteraceous 
particles  in  the  operation  of  churning. 

Sour  Cream. 

Cream,  for  the  purpose  of  churning,  is  usually  allowed  to 
become  sour.  It  ought  to  be  at  least  one  day  old,  but  may 
with  advantage  be  kept  several  days  in  cool  weather,  if  it  be 
previously  well  freed  from  milk,  and  be  frequently  stirred 
to  keep  it  from  curdling.  This  sour  cream  is  put  into  the 
churn,  and  worked  in  the  usual  way  until  the  butter  separates. 
This  is  collected  into  lumps,  well  beat  and  squeezed  free  from 
the  milk,  and  in  some  dairies  is  washed  Avith  pure  cold  water 
as  long  as  the  water  is  rendered  milky.  In  other  localities 
the  butter  is  not  Avashed,  but  after  being  well  beat,  is  care- 
fully freed  from  the  remaining  milk  by  repeated  squeezings 
and  dryings  with  a  clean  cloth.  Both  methods,  no  doubt, 
have  their  advantages.  In  the  same  circumstances,  the  wash- 
ed butter  may  be  more  easily  preserA^ed  in  the  fresh  state, 
while  the  unwashed  butter  Avill  probably  possess  a  higher 
flavor. 


CHURNING    THE    WHOLE    MILK.  67 

Sweet  Cream 

May  be  put  into  the  churn  and  the  butter  be  obtained,  but 
in  most  cases  it  requires  more  labor  and  longer  time,  "without, 
in  the  opinion  of  good  judges,  affording  in  general  a  finer 
quahty  of  butter.  In  all  cases  the  cream  becomes  sour  during 
the  agitation,  and  before  the  butter  begins  distinctly  to  form. 

Clouted  Cream 

The  churning  of  the  clouted  cream  of  this  and  other  coun- 
tries, forms  an  exception  to  the  general  rule  just  stated,  that 
more  time  is  required  in  the  churning  of  sweet  creams.  Clout- 
ed cream  may  be  churned  in  the  morning  after  it  is  made,  that 
is,  within  twenty-four  hours  of  the  time  when  the  milk  was 
taken  from  the  cow ;  and  from  such  cream  it  is  well  known 
that  the  butter  separates  with  very  great  ease.  But  in  this 
case,  the  heating  of  the  cream  has  already  disposed  the  oily 
matter  to  cohere,  an  incipient  running  together  of  the  globules 
has  probably  taken  place  before  the  cream  is  removed  from 
the  milk,  and  hence  the  comparative  ease  with  which  the 
churning  is  effected.  There  is  something  peculiar  in  butter 
prepared  in  this  way,  as  it  is  known  in  other  countries  by  the 
name  of  Bohemian  butter.  It  is  said  to  be  very  agreeable  in 
flavor,  but  it  must  contain  more  cheesy  matter  than  the  butter 
from  ordinary  cream. 

Churning  the  whole  Milk 

Is  a  much  more  laborious  method,  from  the  difficulty  of 
keeping  in  motion  such  large  quantities  of  fluid.  It  has  the 
advantage,  however,  of  giving  a  larger  quantity  of  butter. 
At  Rennes,  in  Brittany,  the  milk  of  the  previous  evening  is 
poured  into  the  churn  along  with  the  warm  morning's  milk, 
and  the  mixture  is  allowed  to  stand  for  some  hours,  when  the 
whole  is  churned.  In  this  way  it  is  said  that  a  larger  quanti- 
ty of  butter  is  obtained,  and  of  a  more  delicate  flavor. 

In  the  neighborhood  of  Glasgow,  according  to  Mr.  Alton, 
the  milk  is  allowed  to  stand  six,  twelve,  or  twenty-four  hours 
in  the  dairy,  till  the  whole  has  cooled,  and  the  cream  has  risen 
to  the  surface.  Two  or  three  milkings,  still  sweet,  are  then 
poured  together  with  their  cream,  into  a  large  vessel,  and  are 
left  undisturbed  till  the  whole  has  become  quite  sour,  and  is 
completely  coagulated.  The  proper  sourness  is  indicated  by 
the  formation  of  a  stiff  hrat  upon  the  surface  which  has  become 


68 


DOMESTIC    A?nMALS. 


uneven.  Great  :tire  must  be  taken  to  keep  tlie  brat  and  curd 
unbroken  until  the  milk  is  about  to  be  churned,  for  if  any  of 
the  whey  be  separated,  the  air  gains  admission  to  it  and  to  the 
curd,  and  fermentation  is  induced.  By  this  fermentation,  the 
quahty  of  the  butter  may  or  may  not  be  affected,  but  that  of 
the  butteiTuilk  is  almost  sure  to  be  injured. 

In  Holland  the  practice  is  a  little  different.  The  cream  is 
not  allowed  to  rise  to  the  surface  at  all,  but  the  milk  is  stirred 
two  or  three  times  a  day,  till  it  gets  sour,  and  so  thick  that  a 
wooden  spoon  will  stand  in  it.  It  is  then  put  into  the  churn, 
and  the  working,  or  the  separation  of  the  butter  is  assisted  by 
the  addition  of  a  quantity  of  cold  water.  By  churning  the 
sour  milk  in  one  or  other  of  these  ways,  the  butter  is  said  to 
be  "rich,  sound,  and  well-flavored."  If  it  be  greater  in  quan- 
tity, it  is,  according  to  Sprengel,  because  the  fatty  matter  car- 
ries with  it  from  the  milk  a  larger  quantity  of  casein  than  it 
does  in  most  cases  from  the  cream  alone. 


Sourness  of  tlie  Cream. 

For  the  production  of  the  best  butter,  it  is  necessary  that 
the  cream  should  be  sufficiently  sour  before  it  is  put  into  the 
churn.     Butter  made  from  sweet  cream  (not  clouted)  is  neither 


Fig.  13. 


good  in  quality,  nor  large  in 
quantity,  and  longer  time  is 
required  in  churning.  It  is  an 
unprofitable  method. 

Fig.  18  is  a  Cylindrical 
Thermometer  Churn,  of  any 
required  size,  with  false  metal 
bottom  to  hold  cold  or  hot 
water  for  brinoinor  the  cream 
to  the  proper  temperature. 
A  thermometer,  permanently 
set  in  the  side,  indicates  the 
heat. 


Quickness  in  Cliurning. 

The  more  quickly  milk  or  cream  is  churned,  the  paler,  the 
softer,  and  the  less  rich  the  butter.  Cream,  according  to  Mr. 
Alton,  may  be  safely  churned  in  an  hour  and  a  half,  while 
milk  ought  to  obtain  from  two  to  three  hours.  The  churning 
ought  always  to  be  regular,  slower  in  warm  weather,  that  the 


ADVANTAGES  OF  CHURNING  THE  ENTIRE  MILK.  69 

butter  may  not  be  soft  and  white,  and  quicker  in  winter,  that 
the  proper  temperature  may  be  kept  up. 

A  barrel-churn,  lately  introduced  into  this  country,  being 
placed  in  a  trough  of  water  of  the  proper  temperature,  readily 
imparts  the  degree  of  heat  required  by  the  milk  or  cream 
without  the  necessity  of  adding  warm  water  to  the  milk,  and 
churns  the  whole  in  ten  or  twelve  minutes.  It  is  said  also  to 
give  a  larger  weight  of  butter  from  the  same  quantity  of  milk. 
If  the  quahty  be  really  as  good  by  this  quick  churning,  the 
alleged  inferiority  in  the  quality  of  butter  churned  quickly  in 
the  common  churn  cannot  be  due  to  the  mere  rapidity  of 
churning  alone. 

OYcr^chnrning. 

When  the  process  of  churning  is  continued  after  the  full 
separation  of  the  butter,  it  loses  its  fine  yellowish,  waxy  ap- 
pearance, and  becomes  soft  and  light-colored.  The  weight  of 
the  butter,  however,  is  considerably  increased ;  and  hence,  m 
Lancashire,  over-churning  is  frequently  practised  in  the  manu- 
facture of  fresh  butter  for  immediate  sale. 

Temperature  of  tlie  Milk  or  Cream, 

Much  also  depends  upon  the  temperature  of  the  milk  or 
cream  when  the  churning  is  commenced.  Cream  when  pnt 
into  the  churn  should  never  be  warmer  than  55°  Fahrenheit 
It  rises  during  the  churning  from  4°  to  10°  F.  above  its  origi- 
nal temperature.  When  the  whole  milk  is  churned,  the  tem- 
perature should  be  raised  to'  65°  F.,  which  is  best  done  by 
pouring  in  hot  water  into  the  churn  luhile  tJie  milk  is  kept  in 
motion.  In  winter,  either  of  these  temperatures  may  be  easily 
attained.  In  cold  weather  it  is  often  necessary  to  add  hot 
water  to  the  cream  to  raise  it  even  to  55°.  But  in  summer, 
and  especially  in  hot  weather,  it  is  difficult,  even  in  cool  and 
well-ordered  dairies,  (without  the  use  of  ice,)  to  keep  the  cream 
down  to  this  comparatively  low  temperatm^e.  Hence,  if  the 
cream  be  then  churned,  a  second-rate  butter,  at  best,  is  all 
that  can  be  obtained. 

The  alleged  advantages  of  Churning  the  entire  Milk. 

The  proper  temperature  can  be  readily  obtained  both  in 
winter  and  summer.  A  hundred  gallons  of  entire  milk,  will 
give,  m  summer,  five  per  cent,  more  butter  than  the  cream 


70  DOMESTIC  AXIMALS. 

from  the  same  quantity  of  milk.  Butter  of  the  best  quality 
can  be  obtained  without  difficulty,  both  in  winter  and  summer. 
No  special  attention  to  circumstances,  or  change  of  method,  is 
at  any  time  required.  The  churning  in  winter  and  summer  is 
alike  simple  and  easy.  The  butter  is  not  only  of  the  best 
quality  while  fresh,  but  is  also  best  for  long-keeping,  when 
properly  cured  or  salted. 

Cleanliness  in  all  the  operations  of  the  Dairy. 

This  is  peculiarly  necessary  to  the  manufacture  of  good 
butter.  Cream  is  remarkable  for  the  rapidity  with  which  it 
absorbs  and  becomes  tainted  by  any  unpleasant  odors.  It  is 
very  necessary  that  the  air  of  the  dairy  should  be  sweet,  that 
it  should  be  often  renewed,  and  that  it  should  be  open  in  no 
direction  from  which  bad  odors  can  come.  {Johnston  and 
other  authorities?) 

The  statement  of  J.  T.  Lansing,  who  received  the  first  pre- 
mium for  butter  from  the  New  York  State  Agiicultural  Socie- 
ty, is  as  follows  : — 

Keep  the  cows  stabled  through  the  inclement  season  ;  feed  them 
from  three  to  four  times  per  day  with  good  hay  or  green  stalks  ; 
when  near  coming  in,  add  some  oats,  barley,  or  corn  cracked. 
In  summer,  good  pasture,  with  hving  water  accessible  at  all 
times,  and  plenty  of  salt. 

Treatment  of  milk  and  cream  before  churning. — Strain  the 
milk  in  tin  pans  ;  place  them  in  a  cool  cellar  for  the  cream  to 
rise.  When  sufficiently  risen,  separate  the  cream  from  the 
milk ;  put  in  stone  jars,  well  prepared  before  churning. 

The  mode  of  churning  in  summer. — Rinse  the  churn  with 
cold  water ;  then  turn  in  the  cream,  and  add  to  each  jar  of 
cream  put  in  the  churn,  full  one-fourth  of  the  same  quantity 
of  cold  water.  The  churn  used  is  a  patent  one,  moved  by 
hand  with  a  crank,  ha^dng  paddles  attached,  and  so  construct- 
ed as  to  warm  the  milk  (if  loo  cold)  with  hot  water,  without 
mixing  them  together.  The  milk  and  cream  receive  the  same 
treatment  in  winter  as  in  summer ;  and  in  churning,  use  hot 
instead  of  cold  water,  if  necessary. 

The  method  of  freeing  the  butter  from  the  milk,  is  to  wash 
the  butter  with  cold  water,  till  it  shows  no  color  of  the  milk, 
by  the  use  of  a  ladle. 

Salting  the  butter. — Use  the  best  kind  of  Liverpool  sack- 
salt  ;  the  quantity  varies  according  to  the  state  in  whioh  the 
butter  is  taken  from  the  churn  ;  if  soft,  more :  if  hard,  less ; 


f 


CLEANLINESS  IN  THE  DAIRY.  71 

always  taking  the  taste  for  the  surest  guide.  Add  no  saltpetre, 
nor  other  substances. 

The  best  time  for  churning  is  the  morning,  in  hot  weatlier, 
and  to  keep  the  butter  cool  till  put  down. 

The  best  mode  of  preserving  butter,  in  and  through  the  sum- 
mer and  winter,  is  as  follows  : — The  vessel  is  a  stone  jar,  clean 
and  sweet.  The  mode  of  putting  it  down  is  to  put  in  a  churn- 
ing of  butter,  and  put  on  strong  brine  ;  let  it  remain  on  until 
the  next  churning  is  ready  to  put  down,  and  so  on  till  the  jar 
is  filled ;  tlien  cover  it  with  fine  salt  the  same  to  remain  on 
till  used. 

Mr.  McWilliams,  of  Orange  county,  the  celebrity  of  whose 
butter  is  unsurpassed,  thus  details  his  method  of  butter- 
making  : 

**  Our  practice  is  not  to  churn  the  milk  until  it  becomes 
thick  or  loppered,  the  milk  and  cream  is  then  churned  toge- 
ther. The  temperature  of  the  milk  is  abovit  fifty  degrees.  In 
warm  weather  about  a  quart  of  cold  water  is  put  in  each  pan 
before  the  milk  is  strained,  so  as  to  keep  it  sweet  as  long  as 
possible.  The  cellar-floor  is  brick.  This  in  warm  weather  is 
daily  cleansed  with  cold  water.  A  drain  from  the  cellar  car- 
ries oflF  the  water  thus  applied.  The  churn  is  filled  about  half 
full  with  milk,  with  the  addition  of  two  pails  of  cold  water  be- 
fore starting  the  churn.  In  cold  weather  the  same  quantity 
of  warm  water  is  applied.  When  the  churning  is  finished, 
which  usually  occupies  about  two  hours  of  time,  there  are 
then  two  more  pails  of  cold  water  applied  to  raise  the  butter 
and  cool  it. 

The  butter  is  then  taken  out  of  the  churn  and  put  in  a  large 
tray  ;  this  is  immediately  filled  with  cold  water,  and  the  butter 
carefully  washed  ;  after  which  the  water  is  thrown  off.  The 
butter  now  undergoes  the  process  of  salting ;  it  is  then  placed 
in  a  cool  situation,  where  it  stands  about  an  hour,  and  is  work- 
ed carefully  over.  This  finished,  it  is  placed  in  the  same  situ- 
ation as  before,  where  it  stands  three  or  four  hours,  and  is 
again  worked  over  ;  again  replaced  for  five  or  six  hours,  when 
it  is  worked  over  for  the  third  time.  It  is  now  replaced,  where 
it  stands  till  the  next  morning,  and  worked  over  for  the  fourth 
time.  A  small  quantity  of  nitre  is  then  put  in  the  butter. 
Thus  finished,  it  is  placed  in  firkins  holding  about  eighty-five 
pounds. 

Previous  to  packing,  the  firkin  is  scalded  with  hot  water, 
rinsed  and  cooled  ^vith  cold  water,  then  rubbed  all  around 
with  fine  salt ;  this  prevents  the  butter  from  adhering  to  the 


72  DOMESTIC    ANIMALS. 

sides  of  tlie  firkin.  When  the  firkin  is  full,  a  linen  cloth  is 
placed  over  the  top  of  the  butter ;  on  this  cloth  a  covering  of 
salt  is  put  one  inch  deep,  and  cold  water  enough  added  to  it 
to  form  a  brine.  It  then  stands  till  it  is  to  be  sent  to  market, 
when  the  cloth  and  salt  are  removed,  the  firkin  turned  down, 
the  top  of  the  butter  in  the  keg  washed  with  cold  water,  and 
the  pickle  drained  off.  The  firkin  is  now  neatly  headed  up 
and  sent  to  market." 

The  salt  added  to  the  butter  should  be  from  l-24th  to  l-28th 
of  its  weight,  or  about  two-thirds  of  an  ounce  to  a  pound,  and 
this  must  be  of  the  best  quality.  All  the  buttermilk  must  be 
thoroughly  extracted  by  repeated  washings  ;  and  when  com- 
pleted, the  butter  should  be  immediately  packed,  and  not  a 
particle  of  air  allowed  to  come  in  contact  with  it  till  opened 
for  the  table. 

CHEESE. 

The  Circumstances  affecting  the  Quality  of  Cheese. 

"  All  cheese  consists  essentially  of  the  curd,  mixed  with  a 
certain  portion  of  the  fatty  matter,  and  of  the  sugar  of  milk. 
But  differences  in  the  quality  of  the  milk,  in  the  proportion  in 
which  the  several  constituents  of  milk  are  mixed  together,  or 
in  the  general  mode  of  dairy  management,  give  rise  to  varieties 
of  cheese  almost  without  number.  J^early  every  dairy  district 
produces  one  or  more  qualities  of  cheese  peculiar  to  itself. 

Natural  Differences  in  the  Milk. 

It  is  obvious  that  whatever  gives  rise  to  natural  differences 
in  the  quality  of  the  milk,  must  affect  also  that  of  the  cheese 
prepared  from  it.  If  the  milk  be  poor  in  butter,  so  must  the 
cheese  be.  If  the  pasture  be  such  as  to  give  a  milk  rich  in 
cream,  the  cheese  will  partake  of  the  same  quality.  If  the 
herbage  or  other  food  affect  the  taste  of  the  milk  or  cream,  it 
will  also  modify  the  flavor  of  the  cheese. 

Milk  of  Different  Animals, 

So  the  milk  of  different  animals  will  give  cheese  of  unlike 
qualities.  The  ewe-milk  cheeses  of  Tuscany,  Naples,  and 
Lano-uedoc,  and  those  of  goats'  milk  made  on  Mont  Dor  and 
elsewhere,  are  celebrated  for  quahties  which  are  not  possessed 
by  cheeses  prepared  from  cows'  milk  in  a  similar  way.  Buf- 
falo milk  also  gives  a  cheese  of  peculiar  qualities,  which  is 
■  manufactured  in  some  parts  of  the  Neapolitan  territory." 


BUTTERMILK    CH&ESE.  73 

Other  kinds  of  cheese  are  made  from  mixtures  of  tht,  milk 
of  different  animals.  Thus  the  strong-tasted  cheese  of  Lecca 
and  the  celebrated  Roquefort  cheese  are  prepared  from  mix- 
tures of  goat  with  ewe  milk,  and  the  cheese  of  Mont  Cenis 
from  both  of  these  mixed  with  the  milk  of  the  cow. 

Creamed  or  Uncreamed  Milk. 

Still  further  differences  are  produced,  according  to  the  pro- 
portion of  cream  which  is  left  in  or  is  added  to  the  milk. 
Thus,  if  cream  only  be  employed,  we  have  the  rich  cream- 
cheese  which  must  be  eaten  in  a  comparatively  recent  state. 
Or,  if  the  cream  of  the  previous  night's  milking  be  added  to 
the  new  milk  of  the  morning,  we  may  have  such  cheese  as  the 
Stilton  of  England,  or  the  small,  soft,  and  rich  Brie  cheeses, 
so  much  esteemed  in  France. 

If  the  entire  milk  only  be  used,  we  have  such  cheeses  as  the 
Cheshire,  the  Double  Gloucester,  the  Cheddar,  the  Wiltshire, 
and  the  Dunlop  cheeses  of  Britain,  the  Kinnegad  cheese  of 
Ireland,  and  the  Gouda  and  Edam  cheeses  of  Holland.  Even 
here,  however,  it  makes  a  difference,  whether  the  warm  milk 
from  the  cow  is  curdled  alone,  as  at  Gouda  and  Edam,  or 
whether  it  is  mixed  with  the  milk  of  the  evening  before,  as  is 
generally  done  in  Cheshire  and  Ayrshire.  Many  persons  are 
of  opinion  that  cream,  which  has  once  been  separated,  can 
never  be  so  well  mixed  again  with  the  milk,  that  a  portion  of 
the  fatty  matter  shall  not  flow  out  with  the  whey  and  render 
the  cheese  less  rich. 

If  the  cream  of  the  evening's  milk  be  removed,  and  the 
skimmed  milk  added  to  the  new  milk  of  the  next  morning, 
such  cheeses  as  the  Single  Gloucester  are  obtained.  If  the 
cream  be  taken  once  from  all  the  milk,  the  better  kinds  of 
skimmed-milk  cheese,  such  as  the  Dutch  cheese  of  Leyden, 
are  prepared ;  while  if  the  milk  be  twice  skimmed,  we  have 
the  poorer  cheeses  of  Friesland  and  Groningen.  If  skimmed 
for  three  or  four  days  in  succession,  we  get  the  hard  and  horny 
cheeses  of  Essex  and  Sussex,  which  often  require  the  axe  to 
break  them  up. 

Buttermilk  Cheese. 

But  poor  or  butterless  cheese  will  also  differ  in  quality  ac- 
cording to  the  state  of  the  milk  from  which  it  is  extracted.  If 
the  new  milk  be  allowed  to  stand  to  throw  up  its  cream,  and 
this  be  then  removed  in  the  usual  way,  the  ordinary  skimmed  - 


74  DOMESTIC    ANIMALS. 

milk  ''lieese  will  be  obtained  by  adding  rennet  to  the  milk. 
But  if,  instead  of  skimming,  we  allow  the  milk  to  stand  till  it 
begins  to  sour,  and  then  remove  the  butter  by  churning  the 
whole,  we  obtain  the  milk  in  a  sour  state,  (buttermilk.)  From 
this  milk  the  curd  separates  naturally  by  gentle  heating.  But 
being  thus  prepared  from  sour  milk,  and  -without  the  use  of 
rennet,  buttermilk  cheese  differs  more  or  less  in  quahty  from 
that  which  is  made  from  sweet  skimmed-milk.  The  acid  in 
the  buttermilk,  especially  after  it  has  stood  a  day  or  two,  is 
capable  of  coagulating  new  milk  also  ;  and  thus,  by  mixing  more 
or  less  sweet  milk  with  the  buttermilk  before  it  is  warmed, 
several  other  qualities  of  mixed  butter  and  sweet-milk  cheese 
may  readily  be  manufactured. 

Whey  Cheese. 

The  whey  which  separates  from  the  curd,  and  especially  the 
white  whey,  which  is  pressed  out  towards  the  last,  contains  a 
portion  of  curd,  and  not  unfrequently  a  considerable  quantity 
of  butter  also.  When  the  whey  is  heated,  the  curd  and  but- 
ter rise  to  the  surface,  and  are  readily  skimmed  off.  This  curd 
alone  will  often  yield  a  cheese  of  excellent  quality,  and  so  rich 
in  butter,  that  a  very  good  imitation  of  Stilton  cheese  may 
sometimes  be  made  with  alternate  layers  of  new-milk  cm*d  and 
this  curd  of  whey. 

Mixtures  of  Vegetable  Substances  with  the  Milk. 

Kew  varieties  of  cheese  are  formed  by  mixing  vegetable  sub- 
stances with  the  curd,  A  green  decoction  of  two  parts  of  sage 
leaves,  one  of  marigold,  and  a  little  parsley,  gives  its  color  to 
the  green  cheese  of  Wiltshire  ;  some  even  mix  up  the  entire 
leaves  with  the  curd.  The  celebrated  Schabzieger  cheese  of 
Switzerland,  is  made  by  crushing  the  skim-milk  cheese  after  it 
is  several  months  old  to  fine  powder  in  a  mill,  mixing  it  then 
with  one-tenth  of  its  weight  of  fine  salt,  and  one-twentieth  of 
the  powdered  leaves  of  the  mellilot  trefoil,  {trifolium  melilotus 
cerulea,)  and  afterwards  with  oil  or  butter,  working  the  whole 
into  a  paste,  which  is  pressed  and  carefully  dried. 

Potato  Cheeses, 

As  they  ar«  called,  are  made  in  various  ways.  One  pound 
of  sour  milk  is  mixed  with  five  poimds  of  boiled  potatoes  and 
a  little  salt,  and  the  whole  is  bea/.  into  a  pulp,  which,  ^tftCT 


PREPAKATION  OF  RENNET SALTING    THE  STOMACH.    75 

standing  five  or  six  days,  is  worked  up  again,  and  then  dried 
in  the  usual  way.  Others  mix  three  parts  of  dried  boiled  po- 
tatoes with  two  of  fresh  curd,  or  equal  weights,  or  more  curd 
than  potato,  according  to  the  quality  required.  Such  cheeses 
are  made  in  Thuringia,  in  Saxony,  and  in  other  parts  of  Ger- 
many. In  Savoy,  an  excellent  cheese  is  made  by  mixing  one 
of  the  pulp  of  potatoes  with  three  of  ewe-milk  curd ;  and  in 
Westphaha,  a  potato  cheese  is  made  with  skimmed  milk. 

Preparation  of  Rennet. 

Rennet  is  prepared  from  the  salted  stomach  or  intestines  of 
the  sucking  calf,  the  unweaned  lamb,  the  young  Idd,  or  even 
the  young  pig.  In  genera!  however,  the  stomach  of  the  calf 
is  preferred,  and  there  are  \  xrious  ways  of  curing  and  presei'v- 
ing  it. 

The  stomach  of  the  newly  killed  animal  contains  a  quantity 
of  curd  derived  from  the  milk  on  which  it  has  been  fed.  In 
most  districts,  it  is  usual  to  remove  by  a  gentle  washing  the 
curd  and  shmy  matters  which  are  present  in  the  stomach,  as 
they  are  supposed  to  impart  a  strong  taste  to  the  cheese.  In 
Cheshire,  the  curd  is  frequently  salted  separately  for  immediate 
use.  In  Ayrshire  and  Limburg,  on  the  other  hand,  the  curd 
is  always  left  in  the  stomach  and  salted  along  with  it.  Some 
even  give  the  calf  a  copious  draught  of  milk  shortly  before  it 
is  killed,  in  order  that  the  stomach  may  contain  a  larger  quan- 
tity of  the  valuable  curd. 

Salting  the  Stomach. 

In  the  mode  of  salting  the  stomach,  similar  differences  pre- 
vail. Some  merely  put  a  few  handfuls  of  salt  into  and  around 
it,  then  roll  it  together,  and  hang  it  near  the  chimney  to  dry. 
Others  salt  it  in  a  pickle  for  a  few  days,  and  then  hang  it  up 
to  drj  ;  while  others  pack  several  of  them  in  layers,  with  much 
salt  both  within  and  vithout,  and  preserve  them  in  a  cool 
place,  till  the  cheese- making  season  of  the  following  year. 
They  are  then  taken  out,  drained  from  the  brine,  spread  upon 
a  table,  sprinkled  with  salt  which  is  rolled  in  with  a  wooden 
roller,  and  then  hung  up  to  dry.  In  some  foreign  countries, 
the  recent  stomach  is  minced  very  fine,  mixed  with  salt  and 
bread  into  a  paste,  put  into  a  bladder,  and  then  dried.  In 
Lombardy,  the  stomach,  after  being  salted  and  dried,  is  minced 
and  mixed  up  with  salt,  pepper,  and  a  httle  whey  or  watei 
into  a  paste,  which  is  preserved  for  use. 


76  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS. 

In  whatever  way  the  stomach  or  intestine  of  the  calf  is 
prepared  and  preserved,  the  almost  universal  opinion  seems  to 
be,  that  it  should  be  kept  for  10  or  12  months,  before  it  is 
capable  of  yielding  the  best  and  strongest  rennet.  If  newer 
than  12  months,  the  rennet  is  thought  to  make  the  cheese 
heave  or  swell,  and  become  fuL  of  eyes  or  holes. 

Making  the  Rennet. 

In  making  the  rennet,  different  customs  also  prevail.  In 
some  districts,  a  bit  of  the  dried  stomach  is  put  into  half  a 
pint  of  lukewarm  water,  with  as  much  salt  as  will  he  upon  a 
shilling,  is  allowed  to  stand  over  night,  and  in  the  morning  the 
infusion  is  poured  into  the  milk.  For  a  cheese  of  60  lbs. 
weight,  a  piece  of  the  size  of  a  dollar  will  often  be  sufficient, 
though  of  some  skins  as  much  as  1 0  square  inches  are  required 
to  produce  the  same  effect.  It  is,  however,  more  common  to 
take  the  entire  stomach,  and  to  pour  upon  them  from  one  to 
three  quarts  of  water  for  each  stomach,  and  to  allow  them  to 
mfuse  for  seveial  days.  If  only  one  has  been  infused,  and  the 
rennet  is  intended  for  immediate  use,  the  infusion  requires  only 
to  be  skimmed  and  strained.  But  if  several  be  infused,  or  as 
many  as  have  been  provided  for  the  whole  season,  about  two 
quarts  of  water  are  taken  for  each,  and,  after  standing  not 
more  than  two  days,  the  infusion  is  poured  off",  and  is  com- 
pletely saturated  with  salt.  During  the  summer  it  is  constantly 
skimmed,  and  fresh  salt  added  from  time  to  time.  Or  a  strong 
brine  may  at  once  be  poured  upon  ihe  skins,  and  the  infusion, 
when  the  skins  are  taken  out,  may  be  kept  for  a  length  of 
time.  Some  even  recommend,  that  the  liquid  rennet  should 
not  be  used  until  it  is  at  least  two  months  old.  When  thus 
kept,  however,  it  is  indispensable  that  the  water  should  be 
fully  saturated  with  salt. 

In  Ayrshire,  and  in  some  other  countries,  it  is  customary  to 
cut  the  dried  stomach  into  small  pieces,  and  to  put  it,  with  a 
handful  or  two  of  salt  and  one  or  two  quarts  of  water,  into  8 
jar,  to  allow  it  to  stand  for  two  or  three  days,  afterwards  to 
pour  upon  it  another  pint  for  a  couple  of  days,  to  mix  the  two 
decoctions,  and  when  strained,  to  bottle  the  whole  for  future 
use.     In  this  state  it  may  be  kept  for  many  months. 

In  making  rennet,  some  use  pure  water  only,  others  prefer 
clear  whey,  others  a  decoction  of  leaves,  such  as  those  of  the 
sweetbriei ,  the  dog-rose,  and  the  bramble,  or  of  aromatic  herbs 
^nd  flowers ;  while  others  a^ain,  put  in  lemons,  cloves,  mace. 


MODE    IN    WHICH    THE    MILK    IS    WARMED.  77 

or  brandy.  These  various  practices  are  adopted  for  the  pur- 
pose of  making  the  rennet  keep  better,  of  lessening  its  unpleas- 
ant smell,  of  preventing  any  unpleasant  taste  it  might  give  to 
the  curd,  or  finally  of  directly  improving  the  flavor  of  the 
cheese.  The  acidity  of  the  lemon  will,  no  doubt,  increase  also 
the  coagulating  power  of  any  rennet  to  which  it  may  be  added. 
The  rennet  thus  prepared  is  poured  into  the  milk  previously 
raised  to  the  temperature  of  90°  or  95°  F.,  and  is  intimately 
mixed  with  it.  The  quantity  which  it  is  necessary  to  add 
varies  with  the  quality  of  the  rennet,  from  a  tablespoonful  to 
half  a  pint  for  30  or  40  gallons  of  milk.  The  time  necessary 
for  the  complete  fixing  of  the  curd  varies  also  from  1 5  minutes 
to  an  hour  or  even  an  hour  and  a  half.  The  chief  causes  of 
this  variation,  are  the  temperature  of  the  milk,  and  the  quality 
and  quantity  of  the  rennet  employed. 

Different  Qualities  of  Cheese. 

The  temperature  of  new  or  entire  milk,  when  the  rennet  is 
added,  should  be  raised  to  about  95°  F. ;  tbat  of  skimmed 
milk  need  not  be  quite  so  high.  If  the  milk  be  warmer  the 
curd  is  hard  and  tough,  if  colder,  it  is  soft  and  difficult  to  ob- 
tain free  from  th€  whey.  When  the  former  happens  to  be 
the  case,  a  portion  of  the  first  whey  that  separates  may  be 
taken  out  into  another  vessel,  allowed  to  cool,  and  then  poured 
in  again.  If  it  prove  to  have  been  too  cold,  hot  milk  or  water 
may  be  added  to  it ;  or  a  vessel  containing  hot  water  may  be 
put  into  it  before  the  curdhng  commences ;  or  the  first  portion 
of  whey  that  separates  may  be  heated  and  poured  again  upon 
the  curd.  The  quality  of  the  cheese,  however,  will  always  be 
more  or  less  affected,  when  it  happens  to  be  necessary  to  adopt 
any  of  these  remedies.  To  make  the  best  cheese,  the  ^^-ue 
temperature  should  always  be  attained  as  nearly  as  possibL, 
before  the  rennet  is  added. 

Mode  in  which  the  Milk  is  warmed. 

If,  as  is  the  case  in  some  dairies,  the  milk  be  warmed  in  an 
iron  pot  upon  the  naked  fire,  great  care  must  be  taken  that  it  is 
not  singed  or  fire-fanged.  A  very  slight  inattention  may  cause 
this  to  be  the  case,  and  the  taste  of  the  cheese  is  sure  to  be 
more  or  less  affected  by  it.  In  Cheshire,  the  milk  is  put  into 
a  large  tin  pail,  which  is  plunged  into  a  boiler  of  hot  water, 
and  frequently  stirred  till  it  is  raised  to  the  proper  tempera- 
ture.     In   large    dairy  establishments,    however,   the  safest 

1* 


78  DOMESTIC    ANIMALS. 

method  is  to  lave  a  pot  with  a  double  bottom,  consisting  of 
one  pot  within  another,  after  the  manner  of  a  glue-pot ;  the 
space  between  the  two  being  filled  with  water.  The  fire  ap- 
plied beneath,  thus  acts  only  upon  the  water,  and  can  never, 
by  any  ordinary  neglect,  do  injury  to  the  milk.  It  is  desirable 
in  this  heating,  not  to  raise  the  temperature  higher  than  is  ne- 
cessary, as  a  great  heat  is  apt  to  give  an  oiliness  to  the  fatty 
matter  of  the  milk. 

The  time  during  which  the  Curd  stands. 

This  is  also  of  importance.  It  should  be  broken  up  as  soon 
as  the  milk  is  fully  coagulated.  The  longer  it  stands  after  this, 
the  harder  and  tougher  it  will  become. 

The  quality  of  the  Kennet. 

This  is  of  much  importance,  not  only  in  regard  to  the  cer- 
tainty of  the  coagulation,  but  also  to  the  flavor  of  the  cheese. 
In  some  parts  of  Cheshire,  it  is  usual  to  take  a  piece  of  the 
dried  membrane  and  steep  it  overnight  with  a  little  salt  for 
the  ensuing  morning's  milk.  It  is  thus  sure  to  be  fresh  and 
sweet,  if  the  dried  maiu  be  in  good  preservation.  But  Avhere 
it  is  customary  to  steep  several  skins  at  a  time,  and  to  bottle 
the  rennet  for  after-use,  it  is  very  necessary  to  saturate  the 
solution  completely  with  salt,  and  to  season  it  with  spices,  in 
order  that  it  may  be  preserved  in  a  sweet  and  wholesome^ 
state. 

The  quantity  of  Rennet  added. 

This  ought  to  be  regulated  as  carefully  as  the  temperature 
of  the  milk.  Too  much  renders  the  curd  tough ;  too  little 
causes  the  loss  of  much  time,  and  may  permit  a  larger  portion 
of  the  butter  to  separate  itself  from  the  curd.  It  is  to  be  ex- 
pected also,  that  when  rennet  is  used  in  great  excess,  a  portion 
of  it  will  remain  in  the  curd,  and  will  naturally  aflFect  the  kind 
and  rapidity  of  the  changes  it  afterwards  undergoes.  Thus, 
it  is  said  to  cause  the  cheese  to  heave  or  swell  out  from  fer- 
mentation. It  is  probable,  also,  that  it  will  affect  the  flavor 
whif^h  the  cheese  acquires  by  keeping.  Thus  it  may  be,  that 
the  agreeable  or  unpleasant  taste  of  the  cheeses  of  certain  dis- 
tricts or  dairies  may  be  less  due  to  the  quality  of  the  pastures 
or  of  the  milk  itself,  than  to  the  quantity  of  rennet  with  which 
it  has  there  been  customary  to  coagulate  the  milk. 


THE  WAY  IN   WHJCH  THE  CURD    IS  TREATED.  79 

The  way  in  which  the  Rennet  is  made. 

This,  no  less  than  its  state  of  preservation  and  the  quantity 
employed,  may  also  influence  the  flavor  or  other  qualities  of 
the  cheese.  For  instance,  in  the  manufacture  of  a  celebrated 
French  cheese,  that  of  Epoisse,  the  rennet  is  prepared  as  fol- 
lows : — Four  fresh  calf-skins,  with  the  curd  they  contain,  are 
well  washed  in  water,  chopped  into  small  pieces,  and  digested 
in  a  mixture  of  5  quarts  of  brandy  with  15  of  water,  adding 
at  the  same  time  2  J  lbs.  of  salt,  half  an  ounce  of  black  pepper, 
and  a  quarter  of  an  ounce  each  of  cloves  and  fennel  seeds.  At 
the  end  of  six  weeks,  the  Hquor  is  filtered  and  preserved  in 
well-corked  bottles,  while  the  membrane  is  put  into  salt-water 
to  form  a  new  portion  of  rennet.  For  making  rich  cheeses, 
the  rennet  should  always  be  filtered  clear. 

On  Mont  d'Or,  the  rennet  is  made  with  white  wine  and  vin- 
egar. An  ounce  of  common  salt  is  dissolved  in  a  mixture  of 
half  a  pint  of  vinegar  with  2^  pints  of  white  wine,  and  in  this 
solution  a  prepared  goat's  stomach  or  a  piece  of  dried  ing's 
bladder  is  steeped  for  a  length  of  time.  A  single  spoonful 
of  this  rennet  is  said  to  be  sufficient  for  45  or  50  quarts  of 
milk.  No  doubt  the  acid  of  the  vinegar  and  of  the  wine  aid 
the  coagulating  power  derived  from  the  membrane. 

The  way  in  which  the  Curd  is  treated. 

It  is  usual  in  our  best  cheese  districts,  carefully  and  slowly 
to  separate  the  curd  from  the  whey,  not  to  hasten  the  separa- 
tion, lest  a  larger  portion  of  the  fatty  matter  should  be  squeezed 
out  of  the  curd,  and  the  cheese  should  thus  be  rendered  poorer 
than  usual.  But  in  some  places,  the  practice  prevails  of  wash- 
ing the  curd  with  hot  water,  after  the  whey  has  been  partially 
separated  from  it.  Thus  at  Gouda  in  Holland,  after  the 
greater  part  of  the  whey  has  been  gradually  removed,  a  quan- 
tity of  hot  water  is  added,  and  allowed  to  remain  upon  it  for 
at  least  a  quarter  of  an  hour.  The  heat  makes  the  cheese  more 
solid  and  causes  it  to  keep  better. 

In  Italy,  the  pear-shaped  caccio-cavallo  cheeses  and  the 
round  2^ciUoni  cheeses  of  Gravina,  in  the  Neapolitan  territory, 
are  made  from  curd,  which  after  being  scalded  with  boiling 
whey,  is  cut  into  slices,  kneaded  in  boiling  water,  worked  with 
the  hand  till  it  is  perfectly  tenacious  and  elastic,  and  then 
made  into  shapes.  The  water  in  which  the  curd  is  washed, 
after  standing  twenty -four  hours,  throws  up  much  oily  matter, 
which  is  skimmed  off  and  made  into  butter. 


80  riOMESTIC  ANIMALS. 

The  Separation  of  the  Whey 

Is  a  part  of  the  process,  upon  wliicli  the  quahty  of  the 
cheese  in  a  considerable  degree  depends.  In  Cheshire,  more 
time  and  attention  is  devoted  to  the  perfect  extraction  of  the 
whey  than  in  almost  any  other  district.  Indeed,  when  it  is 
considered  that  the  whey  contains  sugar  and  lactic  acid,  which 
may  undergo  decomposition,  and  a  quantity  of  rennet  which 
may  bring  on  fermentation,  by  both  of  which  processes  the 
flavor  of  the  cheeses  must  be  considerably  affected,  it  will  ap- 
pear of  great  importance  that  the  whey  should  be  as  com- 
pletely removed  from  the  curd  as  it  can  possibly  be.  To  aid 
in  effecting  this,  a  curd-mill,  for  chopping  it  fine  after  the 
whey  is  strained  off,  is  in  use  in  many  of  the  large  English 
dairies,  and  a  very  ingenious  and  effectual  pneumatic  cheese- 
press  for  sucking  out  the  whey,  was  lately  invented. 

But  the  way  in  which  the  whey  is  separated  is  not  a  matter 
of  indifference,  and  has  much  influence  upon  the  quality  of 
the  cheese.  Thus,  in  Norfolk,  according  to  Marshall,  when 
the  curd  is  fairly  set,  the  dairy-maid  bares  her  arm,  plunges 
it  into  the  curd,  and  with  the  help  of  her  wooden  ladle,  breaks 
up  minutely,  and  intimately  mixes  the  curd  with  the  whey. 
This  she  does  for  ten  or  fifteen  minutes,  after  which  the  curd 
is  allowed  to  subside,  and  the  whey  is  drawn  off.  By  this 
agitation,  the  whey  must  carry  off  more  of  the  butter  and  the 
cheese  must  be  poorer. 

In  Cheshire  and  Ayrshire,  the  curd  is  cut  with  a  knife,  but 
is  gently  used  and  slowly  pressed  till  it  is  dry  enough  to  be 
chopped  fine,  and  thus  more  of  the  oily  matter  is  retained. 
On  the  same  principle,  in  making  the  Stilton  cheese,  the  curd 
is  not  cut  or  broken  at  all,  but  is  pressed  gently  and  with  care 
till  the  whey  gradually  drains  out.  Thus  the  butter  and  the 
curd  remain  intermixed,  and  the  rich  cheese  of  Stilton  is  the 
result.  Thus,  while  it  is  of  importance  that  all  the  whey 
should  be  extracted  from  the  curd,  yet  the  quickest  way  may 
not  be  the  best.  More  time  and  care  must  be  bestowed  in 
order  to  effect  this  object,  the  richer  the  cheese  we  wish  to 
obtain. 

The  quality  of  the  milk  or  of  the  pastures,  may  often  be 
blamed  for  the  deficiencies  in  the  richness  or  other  qualities  of 
cheese,  which  are  in  reahty  due  to  slight  but  material  differ- 
ences in  the  mode  of  manufacturing  it. 

The  Mnd  of  salt  used,  is  considered  by  many  to  have  some 
effect  upon  the  taste  of  the  cheese.     Thus  the  cheese  of  Ge« 


SrZE    OF    THE    CHEESE.  81 

rome,  in  the  Yosges,  is  supposed  to  derive  a  peculiar  taste 
from  the  Lorena  salt  with  which  it  is  cured.  In  Holland,  the 
efficacy  of  one  kind  of  salt  over  another  for  the  curing  oi 
cheese  is  generally  acknowledged. 

The  Mode 'in  which  the  Salt  is  applied. 

In  making  the  large  Cheshire  cheeses,  the  dried  curd,  for  a 
single  cheese  of  sixty  pounds,  is  broken  down  fine  and  divided 
into  three  equal  portions.  One  of  these  is  mingled  with  double 
the  quantity  of  salt  added  to  the  others,  and  this  is  so  put  into 
the  cheese-vat  as  to  form  the  central  part  of  the  cheese.  By 
this  precaution,  the  after-salting  on  the  surface  is  sure  to  pene- 
trate deep  enough  to  cure  effectually  the  less  salted  parts. 

In  the  counties  of  Gloucester  and  Somerset  the  curd  is 
pressed  without  salt,  and  the  cheese,  when  formed,  is  made  to 
absorb  the  whole  of  the  salt  afterwards  through  its  surface. 
This  is  found  to  answer  well  with  the  small  and  thin  cheeses 
made  in  those  counties,  but  were  it  adopted  for  the  large 
cheeses  of  Cheshire  and  Dunlop,  or  even  for  the  pine-apple 
cheeses  of  Wiltshire,  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  their  quality 
would  frequently  be  injured.  It  may  not  be  impossible  to 
cause  salt  to  penetrate  into  the  very  heart  of  a  large  cheese, 
but  it  cannot  be  easy  in  this  way  to  salt  the  whole  cheese 
equally,  while  the  care  and  attention  required  must  be  greatly 
increased. 

Addition  of  Cream  or  Butter  to  the  Curd. 

Another  mode  of  impro\dng  the  quahty  of  cheese,  is  by  the 
addition  of  cream  or  butter  to  the  dried  and  crumbled  curd. 
Much  diligence,  however,  is  required  fully  to  incorporate  these, 
so  that  the  cheese  may  be  uniform  throughout.  Still  this 
practice  gives  a  peculiar  character  to  the  cheeses  of  certain 
districts.  In  Italy,  they  make  a  cheese  after  the  manner  of  the 
E^iglish,  into  which  a  considerable  quantity  of  butter  is  work- 
ed ;  and  the  Reckem  cheese  of  Belgium  is  made  by  adding 
half  an  ounce  of  butter  and  the  yolk  of  an  Qgg,  to  every  pound 
of  pressed  curd. 

Size  <jf  the  Cheese. 

From  the  same  milk,  it  is  obvious  that  cheeses  of  different 
sizes,  if  treated  in  the  same  way,  will,  at  the  end  of  a  given 
number  of  months,  possess  qualities  in  a  considerable  degree 
different.     Hence,  without  supposing  any  inferiority,  either  in 


82  DOMESTIC     \XiMALS. 

the  milk  or  in  the  general  mode  of  treatment,  the  size  usually 
adopted  for  the  cheeses  of  a  particular  district  or  dairy,  may 
be  the  cause  of  a  recognised  inferiority  in  some  quality,  which 
it  is  desirable  that  they  should  possess  in  a  high  degree. 

The  Method  of  Curing. 

This  has  very  much  influence  upon  the  quality  of  the 
cheese.  The  care  with  which  they  are  salted,  the  warmth  of 
the  place  in  which  they  are  kept  during  the  first  two  or  three 
weeks,  the  temperature  and  closeness  of  the  cheese-room  in 
which  they  are  afterwards  preserved,  the  frequency  of  turn- 
mg,  of  cleaning  from  mould,  and  rubbing  with  butter ;  all 
these  circumstances  exercise  a  remarkable  influence  upon  the 
after-quahties  of  the  cheese.  Indeed,  in  very  many  instances, 
the  high  reputation  of  a  particular  dairy  district  or  dairy 
farm,  is  derived  from  some  special  attention  to  some  or  to  all 
of  these  apparently  minor  points. 

In  Tuscany,  the  cheeses,  after  being  hung  up  for  some  time 
at  a  proper  distance  from  the  fire,  are  put  to  ripen  in  an  un- 
derground, cool,  and  damp  cellar ;  and  the  celebrated  French 
cheeses  of  Roquefort,  are  supposed  to  ov»^e  much  of  the 
peculiar  estimation  in  which  they  are  held,  to  the  cool  and 
uniform  temperature  of  the  subterranean  caverns  in  which 
the  inhabitants  of  ^he  village  have  long  been  accustomed  to 
preserve  them. 

Hmmoniacal  Cheese. 

The  influence  of  the  mode  of  curing,  is  shown  very  stri- 
kingly in  the  small  ammoniacal  cheeses  of  Brie,  which  are 
very  much  esteemed  in  Paris.  They  are  soft  unpressed 
cheeses,  which  are  allowed  to  ripen  in  a  room,  the  tempera- 
ture of  which  is  kept  between  60°  and  70°  Fahrenheit,  till 
they  begin  to  undergo  the  putrefactive  fermentation,  and  emit 
an  ammoniacal  odor. "  They  are  generally  unctuous,  and  some- 
times so  small  as  not  to  wei^h  more  than  an  ounce. 


Inoculating  Cheese. 

It  is  said  that  a  cheese,  possessed  of  no  very  striking  taste 
of  its  own,  may  be  inoculated  with  any  flavor  we  approve, 
by  putting  into  it  wfth  a  scoop  a  small  portion  of  the  cheese 


INOCULATING    CREESE. 


should  be  made  to  resemble. 

Fi^.  19. 


which  we  are  desirous  that 
Of  course,  this  can  ap- 
ply only  to  cheeses 
otherwise  of  equal 
richness,  for  we  could 
scarcely  expect  to  give 
a  Gloucester  the  flavor^ 
of  a  Stilton,  by  mere- 
ly putting  into  it  a 
small  portion  of  a  lich 
and  esteemed  Stilton 
cheese.  [Johnston  and 
various  other  authori- 
ties^ 

Fig.  19  is  a  self-act- 
ing cheese-press,  light 
yet  strong.  The  cheese 
itself  gives  a  pressure 
of  twelve  times  its 
own  weight;  and  if 
this  is  insufficient,  ad- 
ditional weight  may 
be  added  as  required. 

The  following  statements  were  made  by  those  receiving 
premiums  from  the  New  York  State  Agricultural  Society : 

"  Number  of  cows  kept,  eleven.  Cheese  made  from  two 
milkinQ:s,  in  the  Ens^lish  manner ;  no  addition  made  of  cream. 
For  a  cheese  of  twenty  pounds,  a  piece  of  rennet  about  two 
inches  square  is  soaked  about  twelve  hours  in  one  pint  of 
water.  As  rennets  differ  much  in  quality,  enough  should  be 
used  to  coagulate  the  milk  sufficiently  in  about  forty  minutes. 
No  salt  is  put  into  the  cheese,  nor  any  on  the  outside  during 
the  first  six  or  eight  hours  it  is  pressed ;  but  a  thin  coat  of 
fine  Liverpool  salt  is  kept  on  the  outside  during  the  remainder 
of  the  time  it  remains  in  press.  The  cheeses  are  pressed 
forty-eight  hours,  under  a  weight  of  seven  or  eight  cwt. 
Nothing  more  is  required  but  to  turn  the  cheeses  once  a  day 
on  the  shelves." 

"  The  milk  is  strained  ^n  large  tubs  over  night ;  the  creana 
stirred  in  milk,  and  in  the  morning  strained  in  same  tub ;  milk 
heated  to  natural  heat ;  add  color  and  rennet ;  curd  broke 
fine  and  whey  off,  and  broke  fine  in  hoop  with  fast  bottom, 
and  put  in  strainer  ;  pressed   twelve  hours ;  then  taken  from 


Cheese-Press. 


84  DOiMESTlC     INIMALS. 

hoop,  and  salt  rubbed  on  the  surface ;  then  put  m  hoop, 
without  strainer,  and  pressed  forty-eight  hours  ;  then  put  on 
tables,  and  salt  rubbed  on  surface,  and  remain  in  salt  six 
days,  for  cheese  weighing  thirty  pounds.  The  hoops  to  have 
holes  in  the  bottom ;  the  crushings  are  saved,  and  set,  and 
churned,  to  grease  the  cheese.  The  above  method  is  for 
making  one  cheese  per  day.  As  in  butter-making,  the  utmost 
cleanliness  is  required  in  every  part  of  the  cheese-making 
premises." 


CHAPTER   IV, 


SHEEP 

With  the  exception  of  the  dog,  there  is  no  one  of  the  brute 
creation  which  exhibits  the  diversity  of  size,  color,  form,  cov- 
ering, and  general  appearance,  which  characterizes  the  sheep, 
and  none  Avhich  occupies  a  wider  range  of  climate,  or  subsists 
on  a  greater  variety  of  foodj  In  every  latitude  between  the 
equator  and  the  arctic,  he  ranges  over  the  sterile  mountains, 
and  through  the  fertile  valleys.  He  feeds  on  almost  every 
species  of  edible  forage,  the  cultivated  grasses,  clovers,  cereals 
and  roots  ;  he  browses  on  aromatic  and  bitter  herbs  ;  he  crops 
the  leaves  and  bark  from  the  stunted  forest  shrubs,  and  the 
pungent,  resinous  evergreens.  In  some  parts  of  iSTorway  and 
Sweden,  when  other  resources  fail,  he  subsists  on  fish  or  flesh 
during  their  long  and  rigorous  mnters,  and  if  reduced  to 
necessity,  he  eats  his  own  wool. 

He  is  diminutive  like  the  Orkney,  or  massive  like  the  Tees- 
water.  He  is  policerate  or  many  horned  ;  he  has  two  large  oi 
small  spiral  horns  like  the  Merino,  or  is  polled  or  hornless  hke 
the  mutton  sheep.  He  has  a  long  tail  like  our  own  breeds  ;  a 
broad  tail,  like  many  of  the  eastern  ;  or  a  mere  button  of  a  tail, 
like  the  fat-rumps,  discernible  only  by  the  touch.  His  coat  is 
sometimes  long  and  coarse,  like  the  Lincolnshire ;  short  and 
hairy,  like  those  of  Madagascar;  soft  and  furry,  like  the 
Angola ;  or  fine  and  spiral,  like  the  silken  Saxon.  His  color, 
either  pure  or  fancifully  mixed,  varies  from  the  white  or  black 
of  our  own  country,  to  every  shade  of  brown,  dun,  buff,  blue, 
and  gray,  Hke  the  spotted  flocks  of  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope 


SHEEP.  85 

and  other  parts  of  Africa  and  Asia.  This  wide  di\  ersity  is  the 
result  of  long  domestication,  imder  almost  every  conceivable 
variety  of  condition. 

Uses. 

Among  the  antediluvians,  sheep  were  immolated  for  sacri- 
ficial offerings,  and  their  fleeces  probably  furnished  them  with 
clothing.  Since  the  deluge,  their  flesh  has  with  all  nations 
been  used  as  a  favorite  food  for  man.  By  many  of  the 
rude,  rowing  nations  of  the  East,  they  are  employed  in  carry- 
mg  bui'dens. 

Their  milk  is  generally  used  by  the  uncivilized,  and  to  some 
extent  by  the  refined  nations  of  Europe,  not  only  as  a  bev- 
erage, but  for  making  into  cheese,  butter,  and  curds.  Job  re- 
fers to  its  use,  as  do  Isaiah  and  other  of  the  Old  Testament 
writers.  Most  of  the  Greek  and  Roman  authors  describe  its 
general  use  and  manufacture.  The  ewe's  milk  scarcely  differs 
in  appearance  from  that  of  the  cow,  but  is  generally  thicker, 
and  yields  a  pale,  yellowish  butter,  that  is  always  soft  and 
soon  becomes  rancid.  Culley  remarks,  "  the  cheese  from  their 
milk  is  exceedingly  pungent,  and  for  that  reason  is  preferred  by 
many  to  that  from  the  cow."  In  Wales,  the  milk  is  mixed 
with  that  of  the  dairy,  and  makes  a  tart,  palatable  cheese. 
We  have  never  seen  it  appropriated  for  dairy  purposes  in  the 
United  States,  except  by  a  few  Welsh  and  Highland  emigrants. 
The  sheep  is  frequently  employed  in  the  dairy  regions  of  this 
country,  at  the  tread-mill  or  horizontal  wheel,  to  pump  the 
water,  churn  the  milk,  or  perform  other  light  domestic  work. 

The  dignity  and  importance  of  the  shepherd's  vocation 
have  ever  been  conspicuous.  Abel,  the  supposed  twin-brother 
of  the  first-born  of  the  human  race,  was  a  "  keeper  of  sheep  ;" 
and  from  this,  it  may  be  fairly  inferred,  that  there  is  no  ani- 
mal which  has  so  long  been  under  the  immediate  control  of 
man.  Abraham  and  his  descendants,  as  well  as  most  of  the 
ancient  patriarchs,  were  shepherds.  Job  had  14,000  sheep. 
It  is  said  of  Rachel,  the  favored  mother  of  the  Jewish  race, 
"  she  came  with  her  father's  sheep,  for  she  kept  them,"  The 
seven  daughters  of  the  priest  of  Midian,  "  came  and  drew 
water  for  their  father's  flocks."  Moses,' the  statesman  and  law- 
giver, who  "was  learned  in  all  the  wisdom  of  the  Egyptians, 
kept  the  flocks  of  Jethro,  his  father-in-law ;"  and  Da-vid,  the 
future  monarch  of  Israel,  the  hero,  poet,  and  divine,  was  a 
keeper  of  sheep.  It  was  to  shepherds,  while  "  abiding  in  the 
field,   keeping  watch  over  their  flocks  by  night,"  that  th« 

8 


86  DOMESTIC    ANIMALS. 

birth  of  the  Saviour  was  announced.  The  root  of  the  Hebrew 
name  for  sheep,  signifies  fruitfulness,  abundance,  plenty;  as 
indicating  the  blessings  they  were  destined  to  confer  on  the 
human  race.  With  the  sacred  writers,  they  were  the  chosen 
symbol  of  purity  and  the  gentler  virtues ;  they  were  the 
victims  of  propitiatory  sacrifices ;  and  finally,  they  became  the 
type  of  redemption  to  fallen  man.  These  may  not  be  considered 
accidental  allusions  in  a  book,  whose  every  feature  is  full  of 
design. 

Nor  has  the  sheep  been  less  the  subject  of  eulogy  and  at- 
tention with  profane  writers.  Among  these.  Homer  and 
Hesiod,  Virgil  and  Theocritus,  introduced  them  with  evident 
delight  in  their  pastoral  themes  ;  while  their  heroes  and  demi- 
gods, Hercules  and  Ulysses,  ^neas  and  Numa,  carefully  per- 
petuated them  throughout  their  regal  domains. 

In  modern  times,  they  have  commanded  the  attention  of  the 
most  enlightened  nations  ;  and  their  prosperity  has  in  no  in- 
stance been  independent  of  tliose  useful  animals,  wherever  wool 
and  its  manufactures  have  been  regarded  as  essential  staples. 
Spain  and  Portugal,  for  more  than  two  centuries,  were  the 
most  enterprising  nations  of  Europe,  and  during  that  period, 
they  excelled  in  the  production  and  manufacture  of  wool. 
Flanders,  for  a  time,  was  before  England  in  the  perfection  of 
the  arts  and  the  enjoyments  of  life,  and  England  then  sent  tlie 
little  wool  she  raised  to  that  country  to  he  manufacttmd.  Her 
politic  sovereigns  soon  found  this  a  losing  game,  and  ofiered 
large  bounties  for  the  importation  of  artists  and  machinery. 
By  a  systematic  and  thorough  course  of  legislation,  which 
looked  to  the  utmost  protection  and  augmentation  of  wool  and 
woollens,  she  has  carried  their  production  beyond  any  thing 
the  world  has  ever  se^n.  The  small  islands  of  Great  Britain 
and  Ireland,  in  addition  to  the  support  of  their  26,000,000  of 
people,  15,000,000  of  cattle,  2,250,000  horses,  18,000,000 
swine,  and  innumerable  smaller  domestic  animals,  maintain 
over  40,000,000  sheep,  Avorth  $250,000,000 ;  and  besides 
manufacturing  nearly  all  their  fleeces,  annually  import  nearly 
an  equal  amount  from  abroad.  The  sumptuary  law  for  bury- 
ing the  dead  in  woollen,  still  occupies  its  place  in  their  statute 
book.  And  beyond  all  question,  England  is  the  leading  power 
of  the  nineteenth  century,  in  the  combination  of  all  those  qual- 
ities which  constitute  national  greatness,  civilization,  and 
strength 


THE  DOMEST    :;ATED   SHEEP.  87 


VARIETIES, 


Naturalists  have  divided  the  wild  sheep  into  four  varieties. 
The  Musimon,  (Ovis  Musimon,)  inhabiting  Corsica,  Sardinia, 
and  other  islands  of  the  Mediterranean,  the  mountainous  parts 
of  Spain  and  Greece,  and  some  other  regions  bordering  upon 
that  inland  sea,  have  been  frequently  domesticated  and  mixed 
with  the  long-cultivated  breeds. 

The  Argali,  [0.  Ammon,)  ranges  over  the  steppes,  or  ele- 
vated plains  of  Central  Asia,  northward  and  eastward  to  the 
ocean.  They  are  larger,  more  hardy,  and  more  untameable 
than  the  Musimon. 

The  Rocky  Mountain  Shee]),  (  0.  Montana,)  frequently  called 
the  Big-horn  by  our  western  hunters,  is  found  on  the  prairies 
west  of  the  Mississippi,  and  throughout  the  wild  mountainous 
regions,  extending  through  California  and  Oregon  to  the  Pa- 
cific. They  are  larger,  but  in  other  respects  resemble  the  Ar- 
gali, of  which  they  are  probably  descendants,  as  they  could 
easily  cross  upon  the  ice  at  Be^hring's  Straits,  from  the  north- 
eastern coast  of  Asia.  Like  the  Argali,  when  caught  young 
they  are  easily  tamed ;  but  Ave  are  not  aware  that  they  have 
ever  been  bred  with  the  domestic  sheep.  Before  the  country 
was  overrun  by  the  white  man,  they  probably  inhabited  the 
region  bordeiing  on  the  Mississippi.  Father  Hennepin,  a 
French  Jesuit,  who  w^rote  nearly  two  hundred  years  ago,  often 
speaks  of  meeting  with  goats  in  his  travels  through  what  is 
now  the  territory  embraced  by  Illinois  and  Wisconsin.  The 
wild,  clambering  propensities  of  these  animals,  occupying  the 
giddy  heights  far  beyond  the  reach  of  the  traveller,  and  the 
outer  coating  of  hair  (supplied  underneath,  however,  with  a 
thick  coating  of  soft  wool)  gives  to  them  much  of  the  ap- 
pearance of  that  animal.  In  summer  they  are  generally  found 
single ;  but  when  they  descend  from  their  isolated,  rocky 
heights  in  mnter,  they  are  gregarious,  marching  in  flocks  un- 
der the  guidance  of  leaders. 

The  Bearded  Sheep  of  Africa  (0.  Tragelaphus)  inhabit  the 
mountains  of  Barbary  and  Egypt.  They  are  covered  with  a 
soft,  reddish  hair,  and  have  a  mane  hanging  below  the  neck, 
and  large  locks  of  hair  at  the  ankle. 

The  Domesticated  Sheep  {0.  Aries) 

Embraces  all  the  varieties  of  the  subjugated  species.  Wheth- 
er they  have  dtjscended  from  any  one  of  the  wild  races,  is  a 


88  DOMESTIC    ANIMALS. 

question  yet  undetermined  among  naturalists ;  but  however 
this  may  be,  many  of  the  varieties  apparently  differ  less  from 
their  ^dld  namesakes  than  from  each  other. 

The  fat-rumped  and  the  broad-tailed  shee^)  are  much  more 
extensively  diffused  than  any  other.  They  occupy  nearly  all 
the  southeastern  part  of  Europe,  Western  and  Central  Asia, 
and  Northern  Africa.  They  are  supposed  to  be  the  varieties 
which  were  propagated  by  the  patriarchs  and  their  descend- 
ants, the  Jewish  race.  This  is  inferred  from  various  passages 
in  the  Pentateuch,  Exodus  xxix.  22  ;  Leviticus  iii.  9  ;  viii.  25  ; 
ix.  19,  and  some  others,  where  "the  fat  and  the  rump"  are 
spoken  of  in  connection  with  offerings,  in  which  the  fat  was 
always  an  acceptable  ingredient.  Dr.  Boothroyd  renders  one 
of  the  foregoing  passages,  "the  large,  fat  tail  entire,  taken 
clear  to  the  rump."  It  is  certain  this  variety  gives  indisputa- 
ble evidence  of  remote  and  continued  subjugation.  Their 
long,  pendent,  drowsy  ears,  and  the  highly  artificial  posterior 
developments,  are  characteristic  of  no  wild  or  recently-domes- 
ticated race. 

This  breed  consists  of  numerous  sub -varieties,  differing  in 
all  their  characteristics  of  size,  fleece,  color,  &c.,  with  quite  as 
many  and  marked  shades  of  distinction  as  the  modern  Euro- 
pean varieties.  In  Madagascar,  they  are  covered  with  hair ; 
in  the  south  of  Africa,  with  coarse  wool ;  in  the  Levant,  and 
along  the  Mediterranean,  the  wool  is  comparatively  fine  ;  and 
from  that  of  the  fat-rumped  sheep  of  Thibet  the  exquisite 
Cashmere  shawls  are  manufactured.  Both  rams  and  ewes  are 
sometimes  bred  Avith  horns,  and  sometimes  without,  and  they 
exhibit  a  great  diversity  of  color.  Some  yield  a  carcass  of 
scarcely  30  lbs.,  while  others  have  weighed  200  lbs.  dressed. 
The  tail  or  rump  varies  greatly,  according  to  the  purity  and 
style  of  breeding ;  some  are  less  than  one-eighth,  while  others 
exceed  one-third  the  entire  dressed  weight.  The  fat  of  the 
rump  or  tail  is  considered  a  great  delicacy,  and  in  hot  climates 
resembles  oil,  and  in  colder,  suet. 

The  broad-tailed  sheep  were  bi  ought  into  this  country, 
about  50  years  since,  by  Commodore  Barron  and  Judge  Pe- 
ters, and  bred  with  the  native  flocks.  They  were  called  the 
Tunisian  mountain  sheep.  Some  of  them  were  subsequently 
distributed  by  Col.  Pickering,  of  Massachusetts,  among  the 
farmers  of  Pennsylvania  ;  and  their  mixed  descendants  were 
highly  prized  as  prohfic  and  good  nurses,  coming  early  to 
maturity,  attaining  large  weights,  of  a  superior  quality  of  car- 
cass, and  yielding  a  heavy  fleece  of  excellent  wool.     The  prin- 


NATIVE  OR  COMMON  SHEEP  OF  THE  U.  STATES.     89 

cipal  objection  brought  against  them,  was  the  difficulty  of 
propagation,  which  always  required  the  assistance  of  the  shep- 
herd. The  lambs  were  dropped  white,  red,  tawny,  bluish,  or 
black ;  but  all  excepting  the  black,  grew  white  as  they  ap- 
proached maturity,  retaining  some  spots  of  the  original  color 
on  the  cheeks  and  legs,  and  sometimes  having  the  entire  head 
tawny  or  black.  The  few  which  descended  from  those  origin- 
ally imported  into  this  country,  have  become  blended  with 
American  flocks,  and  are  now  scarcely  distinguishable  from 
them. 

Native  or  Common  Slieep  of  the  United  States. 

Strictly  speaking,  there  are  no  sheep  indigenous  to  North 
America,  excepting  the  Ovis  Montana,  or  Rocky  Mountain 
sheep.  Before  the  introduction  of  the  improved  European 
breeds,  during  the  present  century,  om-  sheep  were  generally  a 
hardy,  long-legged,  coarse,  open-fleeced  animal,  which  yielded, 
according  to  attention  and  feed,  from  1  ^  to  4  lbs.  of  indiff'er- 
ent  wool.  We  have  seen  numerous  flocks  within  the  last  20 
years,  of  the  pure-bred  native,  whose  bellies  were  entirely 
destitute  of  wool,  and  sometimes  the  whole  carcass  was  bare, 
excepting  a  mere  strip  or  ridge  like  a  mane,  reaching  from  the 
head  to  the  tail.  The  wool  which  was  retained  on  the  neck, 
back,  and  sides,  was  frequently  Hiatted  almost  as  firmly  as  a 
leather  apron  ;  and  that  on  the  thighs,  and  sometimes  on  the 
sides,  was  often  composed  almost  wholly  of  long  hair. 

Although  indifferently  formed  in  comparison  with  the  best 
breeds  of  the  present  day,  being  thin  in  the  breast  and  back, 
light  quartered,  and  slow  in  coming  to  maturity,  they  yet  pos- 
sessed some  good  qualities.  They  were  prolific,  excellent 
nurses,  tallowed  well,  and  yielded  good  mutton.  There  were, 
occasionally,  some  smutty-nosed  or  brockle-faced  sheep  among 
them,  distinguished  by  their  additional  size,  superior  merits, 
and  courage.  These  were  usually  the  leaders  of  the  flock,  in 
their  marauding  expeditions  on  their  neighbor's  domains  ;  and 
in  common  with  the  others,  they  were  eminently  adapted  to 
purvey  for  themselves  on  the  frontier  settlements.  There 
were,  besides,  some  black  or  dark  chocolate-brown  members 
in  every  flock,  which  were  much  valued  by  the  thrifty  house- 
wife for  their  wool,  which  afforded  an  economical  mixture  for 
jackets,  hose,  and  trousers,  known  as  sheep's  gray. 

Our  original  stock  were  principally  derived  from  England, 
where  their  counterparts  may  be  seen  at  the  present  day,  in 
the  refuse  breeds  of  that  country      When  these  sheep  were 


90  D0MEST\C3    ANIMALS. 

vrell  selected  and  properly  bred,  there  was  rapid  and  satisfac- 
ory  improvement,  and  from  such  flocks,  mixed  with  some  of 
ihe  more  recently  improved  varieties,  have  sprung  many  valu- 
able animals. 

There  was  but  one  exception  to  this  general  character  of 
the  native  flocks,  so  far  as  our  observation  extended,  which 
was  a  considerably  numerous,  and,  probably,  accidental  varie- 
ty, known  as  the  Otter  hreecly  or  Creepers.  These  were  an  ex- 
cessi^'ely  duck-legged  animal,  with  well-formed  bodies,  full 
chest,  broad  backs,  yielding  a  close  heavy  fleece  of  medium 
quahty  of  wool.  They  were  deserved  favoritei^'  where  indifter- 
ent  stone  or  wood  fences  existed,  as  their  power  of  locomo- 
tion was  absolutely  limited  to  their  enclosures,  if  protected  by 
a  fence  not  less  than  two  feet  high.  The  quality  of  their 
mutton  was  equal,  while  their  aptitude  to  fatten  was  decidedly 
superior  to  their  longer-legged  contemporaries.  They  are 
probably  now  nearly  or  quite  extinct. 

An  excellent  variety  was  produced  by  General  Washington, 
from  a  cross  of  a  Persian  ram,  upon  the  Bakewell,  which  bore 
wool  14  inches  in  length,  soft  and  silky,  and  admirably  suited 
to  combing.  They  were  called  the  Arlington  sheep,  but  they 
have  long  since  become  incorporated  with  the  other  flocks  of 
the  country. 

The  Merino. 

This  is  undoubtedly  one  of  the  most  ancient  race  of  sheep 
extant.  The  loose  descriptions  and  indefinite  generalities  of 
the  ancient  writers,  leave  much  to  conjecture  on  this  point ; 
yet  we  have  a  few  passages  from  Pliny,  Columella,  and  some 
other  Roman  authors,  which  leave  little  doubt  that  the  Merino 
was  bred  in  their  age,  and  had  even  been  introduced  into 
Italy  from  Greece.  It  is  a  matter  of  history,  that  the  Greeks 
had  choice  breeds  of  sheep  at  an  early  day,  which  they 
might  have  derived  from  Egypt,  Tyre,  -and  Asia  Minor,  as 
they  were  intimately  connected  in  commerce  with  those  coun- 
tries, where  the  woollen  manufacture  early  reached  great  per- 
fection. It  is  supposed  that  the  celebrated  Argonautic  ex- 
pedition, in  quest  of  the  golden  fleece,  undertaken  by  the 
Greeks  nearly  1300  years  before  Christ,  resulted  in  procuring 
a  valuable  race  of  sheep  from  Colchis,  in  the  Euxine. 

However  this  may  be,  it  is  certain  that  when  Augustus  ex- 
tended his  peaceful  sceptre  over  half  the  known  world,  the 
Romans  were  in  pos«^assinn  of  som3  flocks,  bearing  fleeces  of 


THE    MERINO.  91 

exceeding  fineness  and  beauty.  They  had  been  reared  in  the 
province  of  Apuha,  on  the  southeast  coast  of  Italy,  and 
were  called  Tarentine,  from  Tarentum,  the  capital  of  the 
province.  Here,  then,  may  have  been  one  branch  of  the 
Merino  family. 

Another  is  undoubtedly  described  by  Pliny,  who  says,  "  the 
red  fleece  of  Bcetica  was  of  still  superior  quality,  and  had  no 
fellow.''^  All  the  Spanish  coast  on  the  Mediterranean,  of 
which  Baetica  formed  a  considerable  part,  comprising  the 
modern  Spanish  provinces  of  Jaen,  Cordova,  Seville,  An- 
dalusia, and  Granada,  was  early  colonized  by  the  enterprising 
Greeks ;  and  this  red  fleece  that  had  no  fellow,  was  probably 
introduced  by  them  at  an  early  day,  and  by  their  descend- 
ants had  been  carried  to  a  still  higher  degree  of  perfection 
than  that  of  Apulia.  Columella,  the  uncle  of  the  writer  on 
agriculture,  ^a  wealthy  emigrant  to  Spain  from  Italy,  a.  d.  30, 
carried  with  him  some  of  the  Tarentine  sheep,  and  thus  added 
to  the  fine-woolled  sheep  of  Spain.  These  two  ancient  streams, 
united  perhaps  with  a  third  from  the  more  ancient  stock  of 
the  Euxine,  (for  Strabo  asserts  that  some  of  the  finest-woolled 
sheep  were  brought  from  that  region  in  his  time,  and  sold  for 
the  enormous  sum  of  $750,)  flowed  on  in  an  uninterrupted 
current  over  that  broad  country,  and  brought  down  to 
modern  times  the  unrivalled  race  of  the  Merino.  The  limited 
region  of  Italy,  overrun  as  it  repeatedly  was  by  hordes  of 
barbarians  during  and  after  the  times  of  the  late  emperors, 
soon  lost  her  pampered  flocks  ;  while  the  extended  regions  of 
Spain,  intersected  in  every  direction  by  almost  impassable 
mountains,  could  maintain  their  more  hardy  race,  in  defiance 
of  revolution  or  change. 

Whatever  distrust  may  be  attached  to  these  scraps  of  history, 
which  apparently  establish  the  remote  antiquity  of  the  Merino, 
this  much  is  absolutely  certain,  that  they  are  a  race  whose  quali- 
ties are  inbred,  to  an  extent  surpassed  by  no  others.  They 
have  been  improved  in  the  general  weight  and  evenness  of  their 
fleece,  as  in  the  celebrated  flock  of  Rambouillet ;  in  the  uni- 
formity and  excessive  fineness  of  fibre,  as  in  the  Saxons ;  and  in 
their  form  and  feeding  qualities,  in  various  countries;  but 
there  has  never  yet  been  deterioration  either  in  quantity  or 
quality  of  fleece  or  carcass,  wherever  transported,  if  supplied 
with  suitable  food  and  attention.  Most  sheep  annually  shed 
their  wool  if  undipped ;  while  the  Merino  retains  its  fleece, 
sometimes  for  five  years,  when  allowed  to  remain  unshorn. 
This  we  conceive  affords   conclusive    evidence  of  long-coD- 


92  DOMESTIC    ANIMALS. 

tinued  breeding  among  themselves,  by  which  the  very  con- 
stitution of  the  wool-producing  organs  beneath  the  skin  have 
become  permanently  established ;  and  this  property  is  trans- 
mitted to  a  great  extent  even  among  the  crosses,  thus  marking 
them  as  an  ancient  and  peculiar  race. 

The  conquest  by  the  Moors  of  a  part  of  those  fine  prov- 
inces in  the  south  of  Spain,  so  far  from  checking,  served 
rather  to  encourage  the  production  of  fine  wool.  They  were 
nort  only  enterprising,  but  highly  skilled  in  the  useful  arts, 
and  carried  on  extensive  manufactories  of  fine  woollen  goods, 
which  they  exported  to  different  countries.  After  their  ex- 
pulsion in  the  15th  century,  by  Ferdinand  and  Isabella,  the 
Spaniards  preserved  these  manufactures  in  part,  and  sedu- 
.k)usly  cherished  their  fine  flocks ;  and  knowing  the  incompar- 
ible  advantage  they  had  in  them,  their  sovereigns,  except  in 

few  isolated  instances,  strictly  prohibited  their  exportation. 

Exportation  of  Merinoes  from  Spain. 

History  asserts  that  Henry  VIII.  of  England,  by  permission 
of  Charles  V.,  imported  3,000  Spanish  sheep ;  but  of  what 
kind  is  not  mentioned,  they  having  numerous  varieties  in 
Spain.  If  of  the  true  Merino,  it  will  explain  the  superior 
quahty  of  the  English  middle-wools,  the  Ryeland,  South 
Downs,  and  some  others. 

The  first  well-authenticated  exportation  of  the  Spanish 
Merino,  was  made  to  Sweden  in  1723,  by  Alstroemer,  which 
solved  the  problem  of  their  capacity  for  sustaining  their 
character,  on  rough  fare  and  in  a  high  northern  latitude. 
Lasteyrie,  who  wrote  fifty  years  after  the  experiment  had 
been  tried,  speaks  of  their  improvement,  both  in  carcass  and 
the  quality  and  quantity  of  fleece. 

The  next  exportation  was  made  to  Saxony,  in  1765,  and 
consisted  of  105  rams  and  114  ewes,  but  from  what  flocks 
they  were  taken,  history  nowhere  mentions.  A  second  ex- 
portation to  that  country  was  made  in  1778,  of  110  that 
were  variously  selected,  from  the  best  flocks  in  Spain.  From 
these  have  descended  the  high-bred,  silken-fleeced  Saxons, 
whose  wool  stands  confessedly  without  a  rival. 

In  1775,  the  Empress  Maria  Theresa  imported  300  Merinoes 
into  Germany,  and  placed  them  on  the  imperial  farm  in  Hun- 
gary. In  1786,  an  importation  was  made  into  Denmark  and 
her  provinces ;  and  again,  in  1797,  another  flock  of  300  was 
brought  into  tlj^.  kingdom,  and  placed  at  Esserum,  about  eight 


IMPORTATION  OF  MERINOES.  93 

leagues  from  Copenhagen.  In  1786,  100  rams  and  200  ewes 
were  imported  into  Prussia,  most  of  which  were  allowed  to 
perish  from  neglect  and  disease ;  but  their  places  were  fully 
made  up  by  later  importations.  The  same  year,  400  ewes 
and  rams  were  selected  from  the  choicest  Spanish  flocks,  and 
placed  on  the  royal  farm  of  Rambouillet,  in  France,  which 
laid  the  foundation  of  the  celebrated  flock  which  bears  that 
name. 

A  small  flock  of  inferior  animals  was  clandestinely  procured 
by  George  III.,  of  England,  in  1*788,  which  attracted  little 
attention.  In  1791,  a  small  but  choice  flock  was  presented 
to  that  monarch  by  the  Cortes  of  Spain,  which  soon  acquired 
high  favor  among  many  intelligent  breeders.  A  part  of  these 
were  kept  pure,  and  their  descendants  fiuiiished  the  superb 
flock  of  700  Nigrettis,  which  procured  for  their  owner,  Mr. 
Trimmer,  in  1829,  the  gold  medal  from  the  London  Society 
of  Arts.  Others  were  mixed  with  different  flocks  in  the  king- 
dom, to  the  evident  improvement  of  their  fleeces. 

The  first  importation  of  Merinoes  into  the  United  States, 

Which  resulted  in  the  propagation  of  a  pure  breed,*  was 
made  by  Chancellor  Livingston,  then  minister  at  the  court  of 
Versailles,  who  sent  two  choice  rams  and  ewes  from  the  Ram- 
bouillet flock,  in  1802,  to  Claremont,  his  country  seat  on  the 
Hudson.  In  the  latter  part  of  the  same  year,  Col.  Humphreys, 
our  minister  in  Spain,  sent  out  nearly  one  hundred  Merinoes, 
which  were  followed  by  more  numerous  flocks  from  the  same 
and  other  sources.  The  largest  importations  of  the  Merino, 
however,  were  made  through  Mr,  Jarvis  of  Vermont,  in  1809, 
then  U.  S.  Consul  in  Spain,  and  immediately  thereafter.  He 
first  shipped,  as  he  states,  "  200  Escurial,  afterwards  1400 
Paulars,  1700  Aqueirres,  100  Nigrettis,  and  about  200  Mon- 
tarcos.  2700  Montarcos  were  sent  out  by  a  Spaniard  and  a 
Portuguese,  and  about  300  Guadaloupes  by  others  ;  also  200 
to  300  Paulars,  by  Gen.  Downie,  to  Boston.  Of  the  Montarco 
flock  shipped  by  others,  about  2500  came  to  Boston,  Provi- 
dence, New  York,  and  other  ports.  All  were  imported  in  the 
latter  part  of  1809  and  '10,  and  early  in  1811,  and  were  the 
only  Leonese  Transhumantes,  if  we  include  Humphreys'  and 
Li^dngston's,  (which  I  have  no  doubt  were  of  the  same  stock,) 
that  were  ever  shipped  to  the  United  States." 

*  One  or  more  pure  Merinoes  were  imported  into  Massachusetts,  in  the  latter 
part  of  tho  last  century,  by  a  citizen  of  that  state,  but  they  were  soon  mixed  witb 
o'her  flocks,  and  resuited"in  the  perpetuai'i  an  e^no  distinct  breed. 


94 


DOMESTIC    ANIMALS. 


Fig.  20  is  a  SDirited  cut  of  a  variety  of  the  Merino  without 
dewlap,  and  with  a  long  and  somewhat  open  rieece. 


Fi<r.  20. 


Merino  Buck. 


Varieties  of  the  Spanish  Sheep. 

Besides  several  other  breeds  of  sheep  in  Spain,  consisting  of 
long,  coarse  wool,  and  that  of  a  medium  staple,  embraced 
tinder  the  different  names  of  Ckorinoes,  Choaroes  or  Chunahs, 
the  Merino  is  distinguished  by  two  general  di^^sions  ;  the 
Transhmnantes  or  travelling,  and  the  Estantes  or  stationary 
flocks.  The  former  are  subdivided,  according  to  the  Provinces 
they  occupy,  into  Leonese,  Segovian,  and  Sorian.  Many  of 
the  Estantes  were  of  the  best  quality  in  respect  to  carcass, 
constitution,  and  fleece ;  and  such  as  were  highly  bred  and  in 
the  hands  of  inteUigent  breeders,  w^ere  not  surpassed  by  any 
of  the  Spanish  flocks.  There  were  also  many  choice  sheep 
among  the  Segovian  and  Sorian  Transhumantes,  but  m  gen- 
eral they  were  decidedly  mferior  to  those  of  Leon.  These 
last  were  universall}^  regarded  as  the  prime  flocks  of  Spain. 
•They  comprised  the  Escurial,  the  Paular,  the  Nigretti,  the 


VARIETIES    TF    THE    SPANISH    SHEEP.  95 

Aqueirres  or  Muros,  tlie  Montarco,  the  Guadaloupe,  Infantado, 
and  some  others. 

There  is  much  contradictory  testimony  as  to  the  comparative 
merits  of  the  las  -mentioned  flocks,  as  they  were  found  in  Spain ; 
which  is  owing  in  part,  doubtless,  to  the  difference  in  the 
specimens  subjected  to  examination.  We  subjoin  some  of  the 
most  reliable  authorities  on  this  subject. 

M.  Lasteyrie,  who  investigated  this  matter  closely,  says, 
"  The  Guadaloupe  have  the  most  perfect  form,  and  are  likewise 
celebrated  for  the  quantity  and  quality  of  their  wool.  The 
Paular  bear  much  wool  of  a  fine  quality,  but  they  have  a  more 
evident  enlargement  behind  the  ears,  and  a  greater  degree  of 
throatiness,  and  the  lambs  have  a  coarse  hairy  appearance, 
which  is  succeeded  by  excellent  wool.  The  lambs  of  the  In- 
fantado  have  the  same  hairy  coat  when  young.  The  Nigretti 
are  the  largest  and  strongest  of  all  the  traveling  sheep  in 
Spain." 

Mr.  Livingston  says,  *'  The  Escurial  is  the  most  perfect  of  all 
the  travelling  flocks  in  Spain ;  the  Guadaloupe  for  form,  fine- 
ness and  abundance  of  the  fleece  ;  the  Paular  with  similar 
fleeces  are  larger  bodied.  Those  of  Castile  and  Leon  have  the 
largest,  with  the  finest  coat.  Those  of  Soria  are  small,  with 
very  fine  wool ;  and  those  also  of  Valencia,  which  do  not 
travel,  and  like  the  last  have  fine  wool,  but  of  a  very  short 
staple." 

Mr.  Jarvis,  who  spent  many  years  in  Spain,  under  every 
advantage  for  studying  them  closely,  and  who  also  imported, 
and  has  since  bred  large  numbers  of  them  on  his  estate  in  Ver- 
mont, gives  their  characteristics  with  more  particularity,  and 
at  much  greater  length  :  "  The  Paulars  were  undoubtedly  one 
of  the  handsomest  flocks  in  Spain.  They  were  of  middling 
height,  round-bodied,  well  spread,  straight  on  the  back,  the 
neck  of  the  bucks  rising  in  a  moderate  curve  from  the  withers 
to  the  setting  on  of  the  head,  their  head  handsome,  with  aqui- 
line curve  of  the  nose,  with  short,  fine,  glossy  hair  on  the  face, 
and  genei-ally  hair  on  the  legs,  the  skin  pretty  smooth,  that  is, 
not  rolling  up  or  doubling  about  the  neck  and  body,  as  in 
some  other  flocks  ;  the  crimp  in  the  wool  was  not  so  short  as 
in  many  other  flocks,  the  wool  was  somewhat  longer,  but  it 
was  close  and  compact,  and  was  soft  and  silky  to  the  touch, 
and  the  surface  was  not  so  much  covered  with  gum.  This 
flock  was  originally  owned  by  the  Carthusian  friars  of  Paular, 
who  were  the  best  agriculturists  in  Spain,  and  was  sold  by 
that  order  to  the  Prince  of  Peace  when  he  came  into  power. 


96  DOMESTIC    ANIMALS. 

The  Nigretti  flock  were  the  tallest  Mermoes  in  Spain,  but 
were  not  handsomely  formed,  being  rather  flat-sided,  roach- 
back,  and  the  neck  inclining  to  sink  down  from  the  withers ; 
the  wool  was  somewhat  shorter  than  the  Paular,  and  more 
crimped ;  th*^  skin  was  more  loose  and  inclined  to  double,  and 
many  of  them  were  woolled  on  their  faces  and  legs  down  to 
their  hoofs.     All  the  loose-skinned  sheep  had  large  dewlaps. 

The  Aqueirres  were  short-legged,  round,  broad-bodied,  with 
loose  skins,  and  were  more  woolled  about  their  faces  and  legs 
than  any  other  flock  I  ever  saw  ;  the  wool  was  more  crimped 
than  the  Paular,  and  less  than  the  Nigretti,  but  was  thick  and 
soft.  This  flock  formerly  belonged  to  the  Moors  of  Spain, 
and  at  their  expulsion  was  bought  by  the  family  of  Aqueirres. 
The  wool  in  England  was  known  as  the  Muros  flock,  and  was 
highly  esteemed.  All  the  bucks  of  these  three  flocks  had 
large  horns. 

The  Escurials  were  about  as  tall  as  the  Paulars,  but  not 
quite  so  round  and  broad,  being  in  general  rather  more  slight 
in  their  make  ;  their  wool  was  crimped,  but  not  quite  so  thick 
as  the  Paular  or  Nigretti,  nor  were  their  skins  so  loose  as  the 
Nigretti  and  Aqueirres,  nor  had  they  so  much  wool  on  the 
face  and  legs. 

The  Montarco  bore  a  considerable  resemblance  to  the  Escu- 
rials. The  Escurial  flock  had  formerly  belonged  to  the  crown, 
but  when  Philip  II.  built  the  Escurial  palace,  he  gave  them 
to  the  friars,  whom  he  placed  in  a  convent  that  was  attached 
to  the  palace,  as  a  source  of  revenue.  These  four  flocks  were 
moderately  gummed, 

The  Guadaloupe  flock  was  rather  larger  in  the  bone  than 
the  two  preceding,  about  the  same  height,  but  not  quite  so 
handsomely  formed ;  their  wool  was  thick  and  crimped,  their 
skins  loose  and  doubling,  their  faces  and  legs  not  materially 
difierent  from  the  two  latter  flocks,  but  in  general  they  were 
more  gummed  than  either  of  the  other  flocks.  In  point  of 
fineness,  there  was  very  little  diflerence  between  these  six 
flocks ;  and  as  I  have  been  told  by  well-informed  persons,  there 
is  very  little  diflerence  in  this  respect  among  the  Leonese  Tran- 
shumantes  in  general.  The  Escurials,  the  Montarcos,  and  the 
Guadaloupes,  were  not,  in  general,  so  heavy-horned  as  the 
other  three  flocks,  and  about  one  in  six  of  the  bucks  were 
without  horns." 

The  Saxon, 
We  have  before  seen,  is  one  of  the  varieties  of  the  pure-bred 


THE    SAXOX. 


97 


Merino,  the  foundation  of  wliich  was  laid  by  an  importation  of 
some  of  the  choicest  animals  into  Saxony,  in  IV 65.  The  great 
care  and  attention  bestowed  upon  these  sheep  by  the  Elector, 
the  nobility,  and  the  most  intelligent  farmers,  soon  carried  them 
to  a  point  of  uniformity  and  excellence  of  fleece,  never  exceed- 

Fig.  21. 


Saxon  Ram. 

ed  by  the  best  of  the  original  flocks.  The  breeders  were  se- 
lected with  almost  exclusive  reference  to  the  quality  of  the 
fleece.  Great  care  was  taken  to  prevent  exposure  throughout 
the  year,  and  they  were  housed  on  every  slight  emergency. 
The  consequence  of  this  course  of  breeding  and  treatment  has 
been  to  reduce  the  size  and  weight  of  fleece,  and  partially  to 
impair  that  hardiness  and  vigor  of  constitution,  which  univer- 
sally characterized  the  original  Transhumantes.  In  numerous 
instances,  this  management  resulted  in  permanent  injury  to  the 
character  of  their  flocks,  which  America  has  severely  felt  in 
several  importations  of  worthless  animals,  and  which  a  too  great 
eagerness  for  improvement  induced  her  flockmasters  to  use  with 
the  Spanish  Merinoes   and  their  descendants,  as  a  means  for 

9 


98  DOMESTIC    ANIMAZ.S. 

this  object,  but  wbich  has  resulted  in  the  introduction  of  fatal 
diseases  and  serious  deterioration  in  their  flocks. 


The  first  Importation  of  Saxons  into  this  Country 

Was  made  in  1823,  of  four  good  rams,  two  of  which  went 
to  Boston  and  the  others  to  Philadelphia.  The  next  was  made 
the  following  year,  and  consisted  of  75  rams  and  ewes,  which 
were  brought  to  Boston,  and  sold  at  public  auction,  and  were 
afterwards  scattered  over  the  country.  Another  lot  of  180 
followed  the  next  year,  to  the  same  place,  and  was  sold  in  the 
same  manner,  but  at  an  increased  price,  some  selling  as  high 
as  $450  each. 

These  prices  excited  the  spirit  of  speculation,  and  the  fol- 
lowing year  witnessed  the  importation  of  near  3,000,  many  of 
which  were  decidedly  inferior.  These  were  all  thrown  upon 
the  market  for  the  most  they  would  command  ;  and  in  many 
instances,  the  sales  not  half  covering  the  cost  of  im])ortation, 
the  enterprise  was  abandoned  as  a  speculation,  or  commercial 
operation. 

The  late  Henry  D.  Grove,  of  Hoosic,  New  York,  a  native  of 
Germany,  and  a  highly  intelligent  and  thoroughly  bred  shep- 
herd, accompanied  some  of  the  best  early  importations  to  this 
country.  He  selected  105  choice  animals  for  his  own  breed- 
ing, w^hich  he  imported  in  1827,  and  70  more  equally  good,  in 
1828,  and  with  these  he  formed  the  flock  from  which  he  bred 
to  the  time  of  his  decease,  in  1844. 

The  average  weight  of  fleece  from  the  entire  flock  of  Mr 
Grove,  nearly  all  of  Avhich  were  ewes  and  lambs,  as  stated  by 
him  to  the  writer,  in  1842,  was  2  lbs.  14  ounces,  thoroughly 
washed  on  the  sheep's  back.  This  was  realized  after  a  short 
summer  and  winter's  keep,  when  the  quantity  of  hay  or  its 
equivalent  fed  to  the  sheep  did  not  exceed  by  actual  weight 
1-J-  lbs.  per  day,  except  to  the  ewes,  which  received  an  addi- 
tional quantity  just  before  and  after  lambing.  This  treatment 
was  attended  with  no  disease  or  loss  by  death,  and  with  an 
increase  of  lambs,  equalling  one  for  every  ewe. 

In  a  flock  of  pure  Saxony  sheep  owned  by  Mr.  Smith  of 
Connecticut,  as  stated  in  a  letter  from  the  owner,  published  in 
the  American  Shepherd,  104  ewes  raised  101  lambs,  and 
yielded  341  lbs.  of  wool,  Avhich  sold  at  70  cents  per  lb.  For 
the  18  months  preceding,  he  lost  but  three  animals  out  of  300, 
from  ordinary  casualties.  But  some  flocks  of  pure  Saxony  do 
not,  in  good  condition,  average  2  lbs.  per  head. 


THE  RAMBC  UILI  ET  FLO    K. 


m 


A  recent  importation,  (May,  1846,)  made  by  Mr.  Taintor 
of  Connecticut,  consisting  of  four  bucks  and  four  ewes,  from 
the  celebrated  Saxon  flock  of  Baron  de  Spreck,  show  a  size 
and  apparent  vigor  of  constitution,  equalHng  any  of  their  Me- 
rino progenitors. 

Fig.  22. 


Rambouillet  Buck. 


TI16  Rambouillet  Flock. 

This  flock  was  founded  in  1186,  by  Louis  XVI.,  from  a  se- 
lection of  400  of  the  best  Spanish  sheep,  which  were  placed 
on  the  royal  farm  at  Rambouillet.  These,  like  the  Saxon,  re- 
ceived all  the  attention  which  intelligence  and  wealth  could 
bestow,  and  the  consequence  was  soon  manifest  in  their  larger 
size,  and  the  increased  weight  and  uniformity  in  the  fineness 
of  their  fleece ;  the  last  improvement  being  particularly  evi- 
dent, from  the  absence  of  the  coarse  wool,  which  in  many 
cases  infested  the  quarters ;  and  the  jarr  or  hair,  which  fre- 
quently abounds  on  the  flanks,  legs,  and  thighs  of  the  original 
Merino. 

Besides  the  crown  flocks  at  Rambouillet,  they  are  found  in 
equal  perfection  on  several  other  of  the  royal  farms,  especially 
those  of  Malmaison,  Perpignan,  Aries,  Clermont,   and  some 


100  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS. 

others.  These  flocks  have  been  bred  for  hp.rdy  constitution, 
large  carcass,  and  heavy  fleece,  and  of  as  much  fineness  as  is 
consistent  with  large  weights,  and  as  uniform  in  quality  through- 
out, as  possible.  Mr.  Gilbert,  who  was  particularly  familial 
with  them,  says,  "  almost  all  the  fleeces  of  the  rams,  from  two 
years  old  and  upwards,  weigh  (unwashed)  from  12  to  13  lbs.; 
but  the  mean  weight,  taking  the  rams  and  the  ewes  together, 
has  not  quite  attained  to  8  lbs.,  after  deducting  the  tags  and 
the  wool  of  the  belly."  The  French  pound  is  about  one-twelfth 
heavier  than  the  Enghsh ;  but  from  the  general  custom  of 
folding  the  sheep  in  France,  feeding  them  in  fallows,  and  w^in- 
tering  them  in  houses,  the  fleece  becomes  very  dirty.  The 
loss  in  washing  (fit  for  manufacturing)  is  about  60  per  cent., 
so  that  the  clean  fleece  of  the  ram  will  average  about  6  lbs., 
and  that  of  the  whole  flock  something  under  4  lbs. 

The  first  Importation  of  the  Rambouillets  to  this  Country. 

This  was  in  1801,  by  M.  Dellesert,  of  Paris,  for  M.  Dupont, 
then  in  New  York,  and  consisted  of  four  choice  rams,  only  one 
of  which,  Don  Pedro,  reached  this  country.  He  was  used 
«mong  the  native  ewes  near  Kingston,  N.  Y.,  for  three  years, 
and  then  transferred  to  Delaware,  where  he  efi"ected  great  im- 
provement among  the  native  flocks.  The  second  was  that 
made  by  the  late  Chancellor  Livingston,  before  alluded  to. 
There  was  another  in  1840,  by  Mr.  Collins,  of  Connecticut, 
comprising  30  select  ewes  and  2  rams.  All  these  sheep  pos- 
sessed the  characteristics  peculiar  to  the  variety  as  described. 

A  still  more  recent  importation  has  been  made  by  Mr.  Tain- 
tor,  at  the  same  time  with  that  of  the  Saxons  previously  men- 
tioned, consisting  of  23  ewes  and  3  bucks,  variously  selected 
from  the  choicest  flocks  of  the  descendants  of  the  Spanish 
Merino.  The  rams,  though  young,  are  the  most  promising 
animals  of  their  breed,  and  when  full  grown,  will  weigh  from 
225  to  250  lbs.  each.  The  sire  of  one  was  sold  the  past  season 
for  $500.  He  sheared  23  lbs.  of  unwashed  wool.  The  ewes 
measu  '^.  after  they  were  shorn,  from  25|-  to  29  inches  in 
height  ovv.  the  withers.  The  height  of  the  under  side  of 
their  bodies  from  the  groimd,  was  from  9  J  to  12  inches,  which 
is  in  the  proportion  of  good  American  Meiino  sheep.  Their 
weights  varied,  after  shearing,  from  124  to  153  lbs.  Some  of 
them  were  quite  thin  in  flesh,  the  largest  especially,  which,  if 
in  fine  condition  with  her  fleece  on,  would  weigh  at  least  200 
Ibfe.     The  following  is  the  weight  of  their  fleeces  unwashed. 


PROGRESS  OF  THE  MERINO   IN  THE    J     STATES.         101 

The  scales    used  did    not  mark   less    than    one-quarter  of  a 
pound,  which  will  account  for  the  absence  of  odd  ounces. 

No.  17 13    lbs.  No.  100 12\  lbs. 

27 15     "  "  109 17    « 

64 16|  «  "  110 17     « 

71 14i  "  «  117 16|  « 

84 16i  «  "  118 15|    « 

87 16|  "  «  133 14|  " 

94 17     "  «  195 13|  « 

It  was  the  unbiased  opinion  of  several  wool-dealers  present, 
that  the  shearing  above  would  yield  at  least  35  lbs.  of 
cleansed  wool,  fitted  for  manufacturing  without  further  loss, 
out  of  every  100  lbs.  shorn.  The  fourteen  ewes  yielded  21G 
lbs.  unwashed,  which  would  be  equivalent  to  15  lbs.  10 
oz.  thoroughly  cleansed,  or  an  average  of  5  lbs.  6  oz.  per 
head.  One-third  may  be  safely  added  to  bring  this  up  to 
clean  washed.  This  would  make  the  average,  as  wool-growers 
usually  dispose  of  their  fleeces,  7  lbs.  3  oz.  per  head,  a 
yield  totally  unprecedented  in  this  country. 

The  Progress  of  the  Merino  in  the  United  States. 

Thoup'h  reaching^  back  but  half  a  century,  the  Merino  flocks 
of  this  country  have  been  very  fluctuatmg  as  to  their  value, 
increase,  and  improvement.  When  first  introduced,  they 
were  viewed  with  distrust  by  the  majority  of  our  farmers; 
and  it  was  not  till  after  several  years'  experience  of  their  para- 
mount merits,  that  they  were  generally  disseminated.  But 
the  confidence  of  x...r  flock-masters  having  once  been  se- 
cured, it  has  never  been  \^•ithdrawn,  and  they  have  ever  since 
been  cherished  favorites.  The  prices  for  choice  Merinoes 
rapidly  increased  after  their  character  was  fully  established, 
and  Livingston  states  the  average  price  for  rams,  in  1811,  at 
$1,000,  and  some  were  sold  at  a  much  higher  rate. 

This  was  the  period  of  the  embargo,  when  our  infant 
manufactures  were  just  starting  into,  life ;  and  being  follow- 
ed by  war  with  the  greatest  commercial  nation  of  the  world, 
we  were .  thrown  entirely  on  our  own  resources  for  the  sup- 
ply of  our  woollen  and  other  fabrics,  and  wool  and  sheep 
maintained  their  full  value  till  after  the  return  of  peace,  in  1816. 
The  flooding  of  our  country  with  foreign  goods,  under  low 
duties,  which  succeeded  this  event,  either  broke  down  or 
effectually  paralyzed  our  woollen  manufactures;  and  wool,  of 
course,  felt  the  full  weiglit  of  this  crusliing  influence.     The 

9* 


102  DOMESTIC    ANIMALS. 

Merino  rapidly  declined  in  value,  till  its  price  nearly  ap- 
proximated to  that  of  the  native  sheep.  Their  merits  had, 
however,  become  so  conspicuous,  that  the  low  prices  pro- 
duced a  more  general  diffusion,  and  they  and  their  crosses 
were  thus  sown  broadcast  over  the  country. 

The  injtroduction  of  the  Saxons,  in  great  numbers,  in  1826, 
many  of  which  were  excessively  diminutive  and  diseased,  and 
their  indiscriminate  use  with  our  pure-bred  Merinoes,  was  a 
serious  interraption  to  the  career  of  improvement  in  many  of 
our  flocks.  Their  mixture  with  the  best  Saxons  was  no 
further  detrimental,  than  to  reduce  the  quantity  of  fleece,  and, 
to  a  certain  extent,  lessen  the  peculiar  hardiness  of  the 
original  Transhumantes,  which  had  been  fully  preserved  by 
their  descendants  in  this  co^mtry.  The  use  of  well-selected 
Saxon  rams  with  ]\Ierino  flocks,  was  extensively  practised,  and 
it  is  still  persisted  in  by  many  intelligent  flock-masters,  after 
twenty  years'  experience,  who  are  satisfied  that  they  find 
it  for  their  hiterest  to  continue  this  style  of  breeding.  The 
animals  being  smaller,  consume  less ;  and  they  probably  pro- 
duce a  quantity  of  wool  in  proportion  to  their  food,  which, 
from  its  improved  and  uniform  quality,  commands  a  higher 
price  in  the  market.  Wherever  they  are  not  sufficiently 
hardy,  they  can  be  bred  back  towards  the  Spanish  Merino 
standard,  by  the  use  of  some  of  the  stouter  rams.  Their 
natures  are  intrinsically  the  same.  They  are  only  divergent 
streams  from  the  same  oriorinal  fountain,  and  when  ao^ain 
united,  they  readily  coalesce  and  flow  onwards,  without  vio- 
lence or  disorder. 

The  Merino,  as  might  reasonably  have  been  anticipated, 
when  properly  managed,  has  improved  from  a  variety  of 
causes.  Though  kept  scrupulously  pure  in  Spain,  they  were 
seldom  bred  with  that  refinement  of  taste  or  nice  judgment, 
which  distinguishes  the  accomplished  modern  breeder.  Their 
management  Avas  too  entirely  intrusted  to  ignorant  shepherds 
or  careless  agents,  to  secure  that  close  attention  which  is  es- 
sential to  improvement.  The  sheep  had  to  perform  a  journey 
of  several  hundred  miles  twice  in  a  year,  to  and  from  their 
distant  Sierras ;  and  it  was  absolutely  essential  that  strong 
animals  should  be  selected  for  breeding  ;  and  to  secure  this 
object,  those  were  frequently  used  which  were  deficient  in 
the  most  profitable  qualities.  They  were  also  closely  bred 
in-and-in,  seldom  or  never  departing  from  a  particular  flock 
to.  procure  a  fresh  cross.  Their  wild,  nomadic  life,  approach- 
ing nrarly  to  that  of  their  natural  state,  and  their  peculiarly 


PECULIARITIES    OF    THE    MERINO.  103 

healthful  pasturage,  alone   prevented   a  serious  deterioration 
from  this  cause. 

When  brought  into  the  United  States,  the  flocks  were  soon 
mingled  with  each  other,  and  for  many  years  past,  probably, 
not  an  unmixed  descendant  of  any  distinct  original  flock  could 
be  traced.  Abundance  of  appiopriate  food  has  been  given 
them,  without  the  labor  of  long  and  fatiguing  journeys ;  and 
lastly,  there  has  been  much  care  used  in  the  selection  of  the 
most  profitable  animals  for  breed.  The  spirit  of  improve- 
ment has  been  recently  awakened  to  this  important  branch  of 
American  husbandr}",  and  as  we  already  have  all  the  elements 
within  ourselves  for  its  attainment,  if  not  arrested  by  any  un- 
toward national  policy,  it  will  soon  result  in  giving  us  numeroi's 
flocks  of  as  choice  sheej)  as  the  world  affords. 

Peculiarities  of  the  Merino. 

The  prominent  pecuharities  of  the  Merino,  are  the  abunc'  mce 
and  fineness  of  its  fleece ;  the  tenacity  with  which  it  is  leld  ; 
its  crimped  or  spiral  form  ;  its  felting  properties  ;  and  t'  .e  ex- 
cessive quantity  of  yolk,  giving  to  it  that  softness  whi  h  dis- 
tinguishes it  fi-om  all  others.  Their  large  horns  are  c  )mmon 
to  several  other  vaiieties.  Their  hoofs  are  sometimes  si  gularly 
long,  reaching  8  or  10  inches  when  allowed  to  gvo  v.  The 
horns,  hoofs,  and  avooI  scarcely  differ  in  their  cheff  .cal  con- 
stituents ;  and  the  peculiar  development  of  the  two  former,  is 
justly  considered  as  an  additional  evidence  of  their  wf  al-bearing 
properties. 

The  yolk,  in  most  of  the  sheep,  forms,  with  the  dust  which 
adheres  to  it,  a  firm  crust  on  the  exterior,  and  t.  gether  with 
the  compactness  of  the  fleece,  it  offers  considerable  resistance 
to  the  open  hand  on  being  pressed,  giving  the  impression  of 
rigidity.  This  outer  coveiing  repels  the  rain,  the  snow,  and 
the  wind  like  a  coat  of  mail,  thus  fitting  the  Merino  to  endure 
exposure  beyond  any  other  sheep.  On  opening  the  crust, 
the  wool  is  found  of  a  brilliant,  golden  hue,  sparkling  with 
yolk,  and  firmly  held  together  in  masses,  hardly  distinguish- 
able from  the  cocoon  of  the  silk-worm.  The  wool  closely 
covers  every  part  of  the  body,  and  frequently  the  entire  legs 
and  head,  excepting  a  part  of  the  face.  Still  another  pecu- 
liarity of  the  Merino  is  its  longevity.  They  attain  a  great  age 
when  properly  managed,  and,  in  healthy  localities,  sometim^es 
breed  till  20  years  of  age. 

The  Merino  may  be  described,  generally,  as  a  small-boned, 


104  D03IESTIC    ANIMALS. 

closely  made,  medium-sized  sheep,  varying  from  80  lbs.  of 
live  weight,  for  a  small  ewe,  to  160  lbs,  for  good-sized  wethers 
and  rams,  in  ordinary  condition.  They  are  light  in  the  shoulders 
and  chest,  and  altogether  are  more  deficient  in  form  than  the 
best  mutton  sheep.  This  apparent  difference  is  materially 
lessened  when  both  are  denuded  of  their  fleece  ;  as  the  longer 
pile  of  the  latter  covers  defects,  which  would  manifest  them- 
selves under  the  closer  covering  of  the  Merino.  Yet,  with 
this  seeming  deficiency.  Young  found,  in  feeding  the  Merino 
and  Bakewell,  that  the  latter  ate  the  most,  and  gained  the 
least,  in  the  ratio  of  two  to  three.  We  give  the  statement  as 
we  find  it,  though  it  apparently  contravenes  a  fundamental 
principle,  which  a  knowledge  of  all  the  circumstances  of  the 
trial,  the  pecuharities  of  the  particular  animals,  &c.,  might 
probably  explain  satisfactoril}^ 

The  mutton  is  excellent,  and  it  is  probably  not  surpassed  by 
that  of  any  other  sheep.  Lord  Somer^dlle  claims  it  as  a  rule, 
that  the  quality  of  the  flesh  in  each  class  of  sheep  follows 
that  of  the  v/ool,  and  that  the  flesh  of  the  short  and  fine- 
^  ooUed  sheep  is  closer  in  the  grain  and  more  highly  flavored 
thin  the  long-woolled.  Sir  Joseph  Banks  says,  the  London 
bu '  chers,  after  having  some  of  the  Merinoes,  eagerly  sought  for 
mo;e,  from  its  popularity  with  their  best  customers  ;  and  it  is 
certain  that  the  flavor  of  our  mountain-fed  Merino  does  not 
suffer  in  comparison  with  the  choicest  breeds. 

Breeding  Merinoes. 

The  general  principles  of  breeding  cattle  and  sheep,  as  laid 
down  by  the  most  approved  authorities,  must  be  taken  with 
some  exceptions,  when  applied  to  the  Merino.  Good  form 
and  feeding  quahties  aie  desirable  in  this  breed,  but  they  are 
not  as  essential  as  with  the  others.  Wool  is  the  great  object, 
and  if  this  be  sufficiently  fine,  even,  and  abundant,  something 
may  be  abated  in  the  perfection  of  form.  Early  maturity,  so 
much  sought  after  in  the  mutton  sheep,  cannot  be  reconciled 
with  the  great  longevity,  and  the  prolonged  productive  powers 
of  the  Merino.  We  must  content  ourselves,  therefore,  with 
slowly  engrafting  such  improvements  on  the  breed,  as  can  be 
effected  without  prejudice  to  his  other  good  quahties,  and  look 
to  his  crosses  with  others  for  such  quahties  as  are  in^econcilable 
with  his  nature. 

It  is  considered  indispensable  to  the  improvement  of  the 
Merino,  that  it  be  not  bred  too  young.     A  vigorous  ewe  may 


BREEDING    MERINOES.  105 

Dring  her  fir&t  lamb  at  two  years  old,  but  it  is  better  that  it  be 
deferred  till  three.  The  ram  should  never  be  used  till  his 
second  year,  and  then  but  sparingly.  From  2i  to  6  years 
old  is  deemed  the  most  vigorous  age,  though  many  may  be 
safely  used  till  8  or  10,  and  occasionally  later.  Both  ewes 
and  rams  have  been  known  to  breed  till  20  years  old. 

The  ram  should  be  large,  stout,  and  well  made,  carrying 
his  weight  as  compactly  as  possible.  The  nose  should  be 
convex ;  the  face  covered  with  a  soft  velvety  hair ;  the  eye 
lively  and  prominent ;  the  veins  near  the  lachrymal  glands,  of  a 
clear  red  ;  the  horns  rough ;  short  neck  ;  pendent  dewlap  not 
objectionable  ;  full  chest ;  broad  shoulders  ;  broad,  level  back  ; 
large  quarters ;  tail  large  and  well  set  up  ;  good  legs,  and 
sound  hoofs ;  with  a  firm,  easy,  regular  gait ;  the  head 
carried  high,  with  a  look  of  boldness  and  decision,  without  in 
any  degree  approaching  to  wildness  or  ferocity. 

The  ewe  should  possess  these  characteristics  generally,  with 
such  modifications  as  are  suited  to  the  sex.  Great  care  should 
be  taken  to  breed  from  such  as  are  most  perfect  vo  all  the 
essential  points  of  constitution,  form,  and  size  ;  and  weight, 
imiformity,  and  fineness  of  fleece.  The  closest  observation  is 
requisite,  to  select  the  best  in  all  respects. 

In-and-in  breeding  should  be  avoided  where  practicable, 
which  can  be  done  where  there  is  a  careful  registry  of  the 
sheep  through  successive  generations.  Excessive  use  ef  rams 
can  never  be  permitted  without  decided  injury  to  them  and 
their  progeny.  In  Spain,  four  rams  are  supplied  to  every 
hundred  ewes.  This  limited  number  is  proper  enough,  where 
they  undergo  so  much  fatigue  in  travelling,  and  kept  too,  as 
they  are,  entirely  on  grass.  But  if  moderately  grained  before 
and  during  their  use,  and  especially  if  kept  up,  and  allowed  to 
serve  the  ewes  once  only,  as  they  come  in  heat,  this  numbet 
may  be  largely  increased.  A  vigorous  ram  will  suffice  for  35 
to  40  ewes,  when  running  with  the  flock  ;  yet  his  powers  vrould 
not  be  more  taxed  by  double  or  even  treble  this  number,  if 
admitted  to  each  but  once.  Bread  is  a  convenient  food  for 
the  ram  while  running  with  the  sheep.  If  he  is  gentle,  which 
he  should  always  be,  he  will  come  up  readily  and  eat  from  the 
hand,  without  exciting  the  attention  of  the  other  sheep,  which 
crowd,  and  not  unfrequently  injure  each  other  when  grain  is 
placed  before  him ;  or  he  may  be  stabled  at  night  and  fed 
with  grain. 

If  young  ewes  have  stolen  lambs,  they  should  be  taken 
away  immediately  after  yeaning,  and  the  nourishment  supplied 


106 


DOMESTIC  ANIMALS. 


to  the  lamb  from  tlie  milk  of  a  cow.  The  tax  of  nursing  is 
nearly  equal  to  that  of  gestation,  and  farther  injury  to  the  dam 
may  be  avoided  by  this  practice.  Merino  ewes  have  had  the 
reputation  of  being  indifferent  nurses  in  Spain.  This  is  owing 
to  their  fatigue  in  travelling,  and  scanty  pasturage,  rather  than 
to  any  constitutional  deficiency.  It  is  a  frequent  practice 
there,  to  kill  a  part  of  the  lambs,  and  put  one  on  to  two  ewes. 
This  has  never  been  found  necessary  im  the  countries  where 
they  have  been  transplanted,  as  generous  feed  for  the  dams 
has  invariably  been  found  entirely  adequate  to  their  support 
of  the  young. 

Tlie  localities  in  which  Merino  Sheep  can  be  profitably  kept  in 
the  United  Slates, 

Are  wherever  the  pastures  are  sweet  and  dry ;  the  climate 
not  excessively  hot ;  and  the  land  not  too  valuable  for  other 
purposes.  Wool  is  generally  the  great  object  in  the  sheep 
husbandry  of  this  country,  and  when  sheep  farms  are  remote 
from  the  large  markets,  the  Merino  will  make  much  the  most 
profitable  returns.  In  the  neighborhood  of  cities,  where  large 
and  fat  sheep  and  early  lambs  bear  a  high  price,  the  mutton 
sheep  may  be  substituted. 

The  South  Down. 

This  valuable  sheep  has  been  known  and  bred  for  a  long 
time  on  the  chalky  downs  of  England,  where  it  has  always 
maintained  the  character  of  a  hardy  animal,  yielding  a  medium 
quality  of  wool,  and  furnishing  mutton  of  a  superior  flavor. 
It  was  not,  however,  till  within  the  last  70  years,  that  any 
considerable  attention  was  devoted  to  its  improvement.  Since 
that  period,  its  fine  points  have  been  remarkably  developed, 
which  is  shewn  in  iis  improved  lize  and  form,  and  its  early 
maturity  and  productiveness.  The  late  Mr.  John  Ellman,  of 
England,  was  the  first  who  took  them  thoroughly  in  hand  ;  and 
so  eminent  was  his  success,  that  he  founded  a  flock  which  has 
been  the  source  whence  all  the  best  blood  has  been  since 
derived. 

The  form  and  characteristics  of  the  South  Downs. 

His  criteria  of  a  good  South  Down,  are  as  follows  : — '"'  The 
head  small  and  hornless ;  the  face  speckled  or  gray,  and  nei- 
ther too  long  nor  too  short.     The  lips  thin,  and  the  space 


CHARACTERISTICS    OF    THE    SOUTH    DOWNS. 


107 


between  the  nose  and  the  eyes  narrow.  The  under  jaw,  or 
chap,  fine  and  thin ;  the  ears  tolerably  wide,  and  well  covered 
with  wool,  and  the  forehead  also,  and  tlie  whole  space  between 
the  ears  well  protected  by  it,  as  a  defence  against  the  fly. 
The  eye  full  and  bright,  but  not  prominent.     The  orbits  of  the 


South  Down  Buck. 


eye — the  eye-cap,  or  bone, — not  too  projecting,  that  it  may 
not  form  a  fatal  obstacle  in  lambing.  The  neck  of  a  medium 
length,  thin  towards  the  head,  but  enlarging  towards  the 
shoulders,  where  it  should  be  broad  and  high,  and  straight  in 
its  whole  course  above  and  below.  The  breast  should  be  wide, 
deep,  and  projecting  forwards  between  the  fore-legs,  indicating 
a  good  constitution,  and  a  disposition  to  thrive.  Correspond- 
ing with  this,  the  shoulders  should  be  on  a  level  with  the  back, 
and  not  too  wide  above ;  they  should  bow  outward  from  the 
top  to  the  breast,  indicating  a  springing  rib  beneath,  and 
leaving  room  for  it.  The  ribs  coming  out  horizontally  from 
the  spine,  and  extending  far  backward,  and  the  last  rib  pro- 


108 


DOMESTIC  ANIMALS. 


jecting  more  than  the  others ;  the  back  flat  from  the  shouldera 
to  the  setting  on  of  the  tail ;  the  loin  broad  and  flat ;  the  mmp 

Fig.  24. 


vT-Ai^v  u>=^o-^/  ^-•>r.-"     ■^^^is?^^ 


■$^^:t-^: 


South  Down  Evv^e. 

long  and  broad,  and  the  tail  set  on  high  and  nearly  on  a  level 
with  the  spine.  The  hips  wide  ;  the  space  between  them  and 
the  last  rib  on  either  side  as  narrov/  as  possible,  and  the  ribs, 
generally,  presenting  a  circular  form  like  a  barrel.  The  belly 
as  straight  as  the  back.  The  legs  neither  too  long  nor  too 
short.  The  fore-legs  straight  from  the  breast  to  the  foot ;  not 
bending  inward  at  the  knee,  and  standing  far  apart  botli  before 
and  behind  ;  the  hocks  having  a  direction  rather  outward,  and 
the  tTv^sl,  or  the  meeting  of  the  thighs  behind,  being  particu- 
larly full ;  the  bones  fine,  yet  ha\ing  no  appearance  of  weak- 


THE    CHEVIOT.  100 

ness,  and  of  a  speckled  or  dark  color.  The  belly  well  defended 
with  wool,  and  the  wool  coming  down  before  and  behind  to 
the  knee,  and  to  the  hock ;  the  wool  short,  close,  curled,  and 
fine,  and  free  from  spiry  projecting  fibres." 

Other  breeders  have  commenced  where  Ellman  left  off,  and 
have  apparently  pushed  their  improvement  to  its  utmost  capa- 
city ;  and  especially  has  this  been  done  by  Messrs.  Grantham 
and  Webb,  the  latter  of  whom,  while  preserving  all  the  es- 
sential merits  of  the  sheep,  has  carried  the  live  weight  of 
breeding  rams  to  250  lbs.,  and  well-fattened  wethers  to  200 
lbs.  dressed  weight.  Many  of  the  choicest  animals  have  been 
imported  into  this  country,  and  they  are  now  to  be  found,  in 
limited  numbers,  in  almost  every  state  of  the  Union. 

The  wool  was  formerly  short,  and  used  only  for  cloths,  flan- 
nels, cfec.  It  has  been  considerably  lengthened  in  many  of  the 
late  flocks,  and  with  the  improvements  in  the  combing  ma- 
chinery, is  now  much  used  in  England  as  a  combing  wool. 
The  quantity  produced  is  nearly  equal  to  that  of  the  Merino 
flocks  when  well  kept,  varying,  according  to  the  size  and  style 
of  breeding,  from  3  to  4  lbs.  of  clean  washed  wool,  which  in 
quahty  does  not  difler  materially  from  half-blood  Merino,  and 
sometimes  rather  exceeds  it.  The  larger  animals,  of  course, 
produce  fleeces  of  much  greater  weight,  sometimes  reaching 
to  8  or  9  lbs.  The  South  Down  will  subsist  on  short  pasture, 
but  well  repays  full  feeding.  It  attains  early  maturity,  is  hardy 
and  prolific,  frequently  producing  two  at  a  birth.  Like  all 
highly-improved  Enghsh  breeds,  it  is  not  a  long-lived  sheep. 
It  may  be  considered  in  its  prime  at  three.  The  wethers  may 
be  fattened  at  18  to  30  months,  and  the  ewes  at  3  to  5  years, 
when  first  required  as  breeders.  The  last  are  sometimes  al- 
lowed to  come  in  with  a  lamb  at  a  year,  but  they  cannot  be 
sustained  in  vigor  if  put  to  breeding  before  two. 

The  Cheviot 

Is  thus  described  by  Blacklock  :  "  They  have  a  bare  head, 
with  a  long  jaw  and  white  face,  but  no  horns.  Sometimes 
they  have  a  shade  of  gray  upon  the  nose,  approaching  to  dark 
at  the  tip  ;  at  others,  a  tinge  of  lemon  color  on  the  face,  but 
these  mai-kings  scarcely  aftect  their  value.  The  legs  are  clean, 
long,  and  small-boned,  and  covered  with  wool  to  the  hough ; 
but  there  is  a  sad  want  of  depth  at  the  breast,  and  of  breadth 
both  there  and  on  tlie  chine.  A  fat  carcass  weighs  from  12 
lbs.  to  18  lbs.  per  quarter,  and  a  medium  fleece  about  3  lbs 

10 


110  DOMESXrC    ANIMALS. 

The  purest  specimens  of  this  breed  are  to  be  found  on  the 
Scotch  side  of  the  Cheviot  hills,  and  on  the  high  and  stony 
mountain  farms  which  lie  between  that  range  and  the  sources 
of  the  Teviot.  These  sheep  are  a  capital  mountain  stock,  pro- 
vided the  pasture  resembles  the  Cheviot  hills,  in  containing  a 
good  proportion  of  rich  herbage." 

They  are  eminently  adapted  to  high  lands  and  a  severe  cli- 
mate, though  less  so  than  the  Black-faced  or  Heath  sheep  of 
Scotland.  They  have  become  an  American  sheep,  by  their 
repeated  introduction  into  this  country.  A  late  importation 
of  several  choice  sheep  was  made  by  Mr.  Carmichael  of  New 
York.  The  wool  on  these  is  from  5  to  7  inches  long,  coarse, 
but  well  suited  to  combing.  Like  the  Downs,  it  has  heretofore 
been  classed  among  the  middle-wools,  but  these  specimens 
would  seem  to  indicate  that  they  are  verging  towards  the  long- 
wools. 

Tlie  Bakewell  or  Leicester,  tlic  Cotswold  and  Lincolnshire, 

Possess  several  qualities  in  common,  and  it  is  only  a  prac- 
ticed eye  that  can  readily  detect  the  difference.  This  resem- 
blance arises  from  a  recent,  common  oiigin.  They  are  all 
large  and  hornless  ;  of  a  pure  white  ;  with  long,  coarse,  and 
heavy  fleeces ;  excellent  mutton  sheep ;  coming  early  to  ma- 
turit}^  and  capable  of  carrying  enormous  quantities  of  fat. 
Theie  have  been  from  time  immemorial  numerous  flocks  of 
these  large,  coarse-woolled  sheep,  existing  in  certain  parts  of 
England,  under  a  variety  of  names,  and  partaldng  of  some 
slight  peculiarity  of  features,  according  to  the  district  in  which 
they  are  bred.  Thus,  besides  those  above-mentioned,  there 
were  the  Teeswater,  the  Romney-Marsh,  the  Kentish,  the 
Bampton,  the  Exmoor,  &c.,  all  of  which  were  deficient  in  form, 
slow-feeders,  and  late  in  coming  to  maturity. 

Improvemeut  of  the  Long-Wools. 

The  late  Robert  Bakewell  first  commenced  a  decided  im- 
provement with  the  Leicesters,  nearly  a  century  since.  He 
began  by  selecting  the  choicest  sheep  in  England,  which  pos- 
sessed the  essential  qualities  ;  and  by  judicious  feeding  and 
manager^ent  throughout,  he  soon  brought  them  up  to  a  char- 
acter widely  diftering  from  the  original  with  which  he  started. 
So  eminent  was  his  success,  that  in  1*787  he  let  three  rams, 
for  a  single  season,  for  1250  pounds,  (about  $6,200,)  and  was 
offered  1050  pounds  (about  $5,200)  fcr  20  ewes.     Soon  after 


IMPROVEMENT    OF  THE  LONG-WOOLS. 


Ill 


this,  he  reseived  the  enormous  price  of  800  guineas,  or  |4,000, 
for  the  use  of  two-thirds  of  a  ram  for  one  season,  reserving  the 
other  third  for  himself. 

Fig.  25. 


Long-wool  Buck. 

He  reduced  the  bone  and  offal  or  worthless  parts  of  the  car- 
cass, and  increased  the  weight  of  the  valuable  parts,  and  es- 


112  DOMESTIC    ANIMALS. 

pecially  their  tendency  to  fatten  and  early  maturity.  Thi 
was  effected  mainly  by  a  nice  discrimination,  which  has  prob 
ably  never  been  surpassed,  if  it  has  ever  been  equalled.  He 
selected  medium  sizes  for  the  breed,  with  as  much  evenness 
and  perfection  of  form  as  possible,  for  he  found  that  excellence 
and  profitable  feeding  qualities  were  seldom  connected  with 
extra  size,  large  bones,  or  imperfect  form.  He  also  observed 
the  disposition  to  fatten  in  individuals,  and  used  only  such  as 
were  conspicuous  in  this  respect.  He  rehed  more  than  all 
upon  their  quahty  of  handling  well,  depending  even  more  upon 
the  elastic,  mellow  touch,  than  upon  the  most  symmetrical 
figure.  He  used  only  the  choicest  rams,  a  little  under  size, 
while  the  ewes  were  of  full  medium  weight.  The  progeny 
were  pushed  with  a  full  supply  of  nutritious  food,  and  system- 
atically brought  to  early  maturity. 

Connected  with  this,  was  his  practice  of  in-and-in  hreedingy 
or  breeding  the  parent  upon  the  progeny,  for  several  succes- 
sive generations,  which  had  the  tendency  still  fm'ther  to  refine 
the  bone  and  offal,  and  impress  most  effectually  the  desirable 
characteristics  of  the  race.  It  is  even  credibly  asserted,  that 
he  produced  rot  in  such  of  his  fattening  sheep  as  he  wished 
to  mature  early  for  the  shambles,  as  in  the  first  stages  of  that 
loathsome  disease  the  fat-secreting  organs  accomplish  their 
office  more  rapidly  than  in  a  state  of  perfect  health ;  and  it  at 
least  secured  them  against  breeding  when  they  left  his  own 
hands.  It  is  certain,  that  Bakewell  carried  his  refining  sys- 
tem to  such  an  extent,  as  partially  to  destroy  the  procreative 
powers  ;  and  he  was  subsequently  obliged  to  introduce  new 
animals,  to  reinvigorate  and  continue  his  flock. 

The  general  system  of  Bakewell,  how.ever,  was  attended 
with  complete  success.  He  produced  a-  race  of  animals,  not 
only  far  beyond  what  England  had  ever  before  seen,  but 
which,  in  all  the  qualities  he  endeavored  to  establish,  have  not 
been  smce  exceeded ;  and  his  imiwoved  Leicesters  ha^e  come 
down  to  the  present  day  as  perfect  as  he  left  them,  showing 
conclusively,  that  he  not  only  formed,  but  stamped  the  pe- 
culiarities of  the  breed,  with  a  permanence  which  yet  bears 
witness  to  his  genius.  One  of  these  attained  the  enoimous 
live  weight  of  368  lbs.,  and  dressed  248  lbs. 

The  Cotswold  and  Lincolnshire. 

Other  breeders  were  not  slow  in  following  in  Bakewell  a 
footsteps  with  different  breeds,  and  the  Cotswold  and  Lincoln- 


BREEDING    OF    LONG-WOOLS.  113 

shire  especially,  have  become  the  subjects  of  an  equally  decided 
improvement,  while  the  errors  of  Bakewell  were  entirely 
avoided.  They  possess  a  rather  more  desirable  robustness, 
approaching,  in  some  few  specimens,  almost  to  coarseness,  as 
compared  with  the  finest  Leicesters  ;  but  they  are  more  hardy 
and  less  liable  to  disease.  They  attain  as  large  a  size,  and 
yield  as  great  an  amount  of  wool,  of  about  the  same  value. 
These  breeds  scarcely  differ  more  from  each  other,  than  do 
flocks  of  a  similar  variety,  which  have  been  separately  bred 
for  several  generations.  They  are  prolific,  and  when  well  fed, 
the  ewes  will  frequently  produce  two  lambs  at  a  birth,  for 
which  they  provide  hberally  from  their  udder  till  tbe  time  for 
weaning.  The  weight  of  the  fleece  varies  from  4  to  8  lbs.  per 
head. 

Peculiarity  of  long  Wool  and  its  Uses. 

The  striking  peculiarity  of  the  long-wools,  is  in  the  produc- 
tion of  a  fleece,  which  is  perfectly  adapted,  by  its  length  and 
the  absence  of  the  felting  property,  to  the  manufacture  of 
worsted  stuffs,  bombazines,  moussehne  de  laines,  &c.  This  is 
a  branch  of  manufactures,  for  which  we  had  little  material 
that  was  suitable,  till  the  introduction  of  the  long-wools  ;  and 
its  rapid  extension  in  the  United  States,  within  the  past  few 
years,  clearly  shows  that  a  large  and  increasing  demand  for 
this  kind  of  wool  will  continue  at  remunerating  prices.  Be- 
sides its  uses  for  combing,  it  is  extensively  manufactured  into 
blankets,  carpeting,  and  many  other  fabrics. 

Importation  of  Long-Wools. 

Several  of  the  Bakewells  were  imported  during  the  last  cen- 
tury ;  and  many  flocks,  containing  some  of  the  best  specimens, 
have  been  introduced  and  scattered  over  every  section  of  the 
country.  The  largest  of  any  single  importation  of  the  long- 
wools,  was  made  by  Messrs.  Corning  &  Sotham,  in  1842,  and 
immediately  preceding,  and  consisted  of  10  or  80  choice  Cots- 
wolds.  __ 

Breeding  the  Long-Wools. 

Some  information  on  this  subject  will  be  found  under  the 
head  of  breeding  Merinoes,  and  improvement  of  the  Long-  Wools, 
The  ram  and  ewe  should  be  selected  from  the  best  specimens 
of  the  breed  which  is  to  be  perpetuated.  There  are  peculiar- 
ities of  form  or  appearance  in  each,  which  should  be  carefully 

10* 


114  DOMESl'C    ANIMALS. 

observed.  A  violent  cross  should  never  be  permitted  for  the 
purpose  of  perpetuation,  as  suggested  under  the  head  of  prin- 
ciples of  breeding,  in  a  previous  chapter  ;  such  as  between  those 
possessing  totally  opposite  properties,  as  the  Merino  and  long- 
wools  ;  and  there  is  no  conceivable  advantage  in  mixing  the 
middle- wools.  South  Downs,  &c.,  with  either. 

Lord  Western  has  long  experimented  on  the  blending  of 
the  Merino  and  long- wools,  through  several  generations,  with- 
out any  well-defined  results,  nor  is  it  believed  to  be  attainable. 
There  is  no  evenness  or  integrity  of  character,  either  in  the 
animal  or  fleece,  from  such  mixtures ;  nor  is  it  possible  to 
forelel  the  cliaracler  of  progeny  from  these  bastard  crosses. 
The  general  rule,  that  like  begets  like,  will  not  hold  true  here, 
for  the  animal  comes  large  or  small,  with  a  long  or  short 
fleece,  fine  or  coarse,  or  intermixed ;  and  this,  too.  is  repeated 
through  numerous  generations,  when  the  immediate  parents 
exhibit  properties  altogether  unhke  the  oftspring,  and  which 
they  derive  from  some  remote  ancestr)^  This  practice  will  do 
to  produce  lambs  for  the  butcher,  as  the  consequence  of  a 
fi'esh  cross  is  greater  stamina  and  thrift ;  and  it  is  found  that 
lambs  thus  bred  attain  an  earl}^  and  fiill  development.  Thou- 
sands of  such  are  annually  bi  ed  on  the  banks  of  the  Hudson, 
Long  Island,  and  around  our  large  cities,  and  in  the  worst 
possible  way,  as  the  large,  coarse  ram  is  used  on  the  delicate 
Saxon  ewe ;  yet  the  lambs  thrive  and  command  a  good  pvice 
in  the  market,  and  the  owner  is  satisfied  to  pocket  the  result. 
But  nothing  could  be  more  absurd  than  to  propagate  from 
such  progen}''  for  any  other  purpose  than  to  make  early  and 
profitable  mutton. 

The  mixture  of  breeds  of  similar  chaiacter,  is  attended  with 
the  best  consequences.  Such  was  the  intermingling  of  the 
improved  Leicesters  Avith  the  Cotswold  and  Lincolnshire,  by 
which  their  former  coarseness  was  removed  ;  and  such  was  the 
use  of  the  latter  with  the  Leicesters,  when  they  became  impo- 
tent and  almost  worthless,  from  over-refinement  in  breeding. 
Good  results  have  followed  the  mixture  of  the  South  and 
Hampshire  Downs.  A  marked  improvement  in  the  Merino  in 
this  country,  has  been  claimed  by  Mr.  Jarvis  and  several 
others,  from  the  mixture  of  the  various  flocks,  which  for  ages 
had  been  kept  distinct  in  Spain  ;  and  the  same  result  is  known 
to  have  followed  a  similar  course  with  the  Rambouillet  and 
Saxon  flocks. 


BREEDING    SHEEP.  115 

The  ewe  goes  with  young 

About  five  months,  varying  from  145  to  162  days.  Each 
flock-master  will  of  course  determine  what  is  the  proper  lamb- 
ing time.  For  early  market,  or  when  there  are  few  sheep, 
and  those  well  looked  after,  the  lambs  may  come  while  the 
ewes  are  in  the  yards,  and  provision  can  be  made  for  them, 
by  placing  such  as  are  heavy  in  warm  stalls.  Both  the  dam 
and  young  thus  receive  a  closer  attention  than  they  would  in 
the  field ;  and  after  a  week's  housing,  in  severe  weather,  the 
lamb  may  be  turned  out  into  the  dry  yard,  where  he  will 
suffer  no  more,  apparently,  than  the  full-grown  sheep. 

But  with  large  flocks,  early  lambing  is  attended  with  much 
trouble,  and  it  is  generally  avoided,  by  deferring  it  till  the 
weather  has  become  more  settled,  and  a  full  bite  of  grass  will 
afford  the  dam  a  plentiful  supply  of  milk.  Yet  in  this  case, 
the  young  sheep  must  daily  be  under  the  eye  of  the  shepherd, 
who  should  see  that  they  are  well  supplied  with  food,  and  es- 
pecially that  they  are  brought  imder  cover,  in  severe  or  stormy 
weather. 

A  ram.  will  serve  from  20  to  100  ewes  in  a  season,  according 
to  his  age,  health,  feed,  and  management.  A  South  Down  or 
long-woolled  lamb,  of  7  or  8  months,  is  sometimes  used ;  and 
when  this  is  done,  he  should  be  well  fed,  and  allowed  to  run 
only  with  a  very  few  ewes.  If  full-grown  rams  are  turned 
into  a  lean  pasture  to  remain  with  the  ewes,  not  less  than  four 
should  be  put  in  for  every  hundred.  But  if  a  well-fed  ram, 
in  full  health  and  vigor,  is  kept  up,  and  led  out  to  the  ewe  as 
she  comes  into  heat,  and  allowed  to  serve  her  once  only,  he 
will  suffice  for  one  hundred,  without  injury  to  himself  or  pro- 
geny. For  this  purpose,  the  ram  should  be  prepared,  not  by 
being  fat,  for  this,  neither  he  nor  the  ewe  should  ever  be ;  but 
by  being  fed  with  grain  for  a  short  time  before,  and  during 
the  continuance  of  the  season.  The  ewes  are  more  likely  to 
come  quickly  into  heat,  and  prove  prolific,  if  lightly  fed  with 
stimulating  food  at  the  time. 

It  is  reasonably  enough  conjectured,  that  if  procreation,  and 
the  first  period  of  gestation,  takes  place  in  cold  weather,  the 
foetus  will  subsequently  be  fitted  for  the  climate,  Avhich  rules 
during  the  early  stages  of  its  existence.  If  this  be  so,  and  it 
is  certainly  in  accordance  Avith  the  laws  of  nature,  fine-woolled 
sheep  are  most  likely  to  maintain  their  excellence,  by  defei-ring 
the  connection  of  the  male  till  the  commencement  of  cold 
weather ;  and  in  the  Northern  states,  this  is  done  about  the 


116  DOMESTIC    ANIMALS. 

first  of  December,  whicli  brings  the  yeaning  time  in  the  last 
of  Apiil  or  first  of.  May,  when  the  early  grass  will  afford  a 
large  supply  and  good  quality  of  feed. 

Winter  Management  and  Food. 

Sheep  should  be  brought  into  winter-quarters  soon  after  the 
severe  frosts  occur,  as  these  diminish  the  feed,  and  materially 
impah*  its  nutritious  qualities.  They  ought  also  to  be  removed 
from  the  grass-lands,  before  they  become  permanently  soften- 
ed by  the  rains,  as  they  will  injuriously  affect  the-ir  comfort 
and  health  ;  and  allowing  them  to  remain  is  equally  objection- 
able, from  their  poaching  the  sod.  If  the  number  be  large 
when  brought  to  the  yards,  they  must  be  divided  into  flocks 
of  50  to  100,  according  to  the  size  of  the  yards  and  sheds. 
The  young  and  feeble  ought  to  be  separated  from  the  others, 
and  the  ailing  ones  placed  by  themselves  ;  and  that  no  one 
may  suffer  from  the  others,  all  should  be  classed  as  uniformly 
as  possible  as  to  strength.  The  yards  must  be  dry,  well  sup- 
phed  with  a  trough  of  fresh  water,  and  with  comfortable 
sheds,  to  which  they  can  retire  when  they  choose. 

Shelters. 

These,  in  northern  climates,  are  indispensable  to  profitable 
sheep-raising,  and  in  every  latitude  north  of  the  Gulf  of 
Mexico  they  would  be  advantageous.  There  is  policy  as 
well  as  humanity  in  the  practice.  An  animal  eats  much  less 
when  thus  protected ;  he  is  more  thrifty,  less  liable  to  disease, 
and  his  manure  is  richer  and  more  abundant.  The  feeding 
may  be  done  in  the  open  yard  in  clear  weather,  and  under 
cover  in  severe  storms.  The  shelters  for  sheep  are  variously 
constructed,  to  suit  the  taste  or  circumstances  of  the  flock- 
master.  A  sheep-barn,  built  upon  a  side  hill,  will  afford  two 
floors  ;  one  underneath,  surrounded  by  tliree  sides  of  wall, 
should  open  to  the  south,  with  sliding  or  swinging  doors  to 
guard  against  storms ;  and  another  may  be  provided  above, 
if  the  floors  are  perfectly  tight,  with  proper  gutters  to  carry 
off  the  ui  ine ;  and  sufficient  storage  for  the  fodder  can  be 
furnished  by  scaffolds  overhead.  Or  they  may  be  constructed 
with  twelve  or  fifteen  feet  posts  on  level  ground,  allowing 
the  sheep  to  occupy  the  lower  part,  with  the  fodder  stored 
above. 

In  all  cases,  however,  thorough  ventilation  should  he  pro 
vided,  for  of  the  two  evils  of  exposure  to  cold  or  too  great 


RACKS    OR    MANGERS,    AND    TROUGHS.  117 

pnvation  of  air,  the  former  is  to  be  preferred.  Slieep  cannot 
long  endure  close  confinement  without  injury.  In  all  ordinary 
weather,  a  shed  closely  boarded  on  three  sides,  vnth  a  tight 
roof,  is  sufficient  protection ;  especially,  if  the  open  side  is 
shielded  from  bleak  winds,  or  leads  into  a  well-enclosed  yard. 
If  the  floors  above  are  used  for  storage,  they  should  be  made 
tight,  that  no  hay,  chaff,  or  dust  can  fall  upon  the  fleece. 

Racks  or  Mangers. 

These  are  indispensable  to  economical  feeding.  If  the  hay 
is  fed  on  the  ground,  the  leaves  and  seeds,  the  most  valuable 
part  of  the  fodder,  are  almost  wholly  lost ;  and  when  wet,  the 
sheep,  in  their  restlessness  while  feeding,  will  tread  much  of 
it  into  the  mud.  To  make  an  economical  box  or  rack,  take 
six  light  pieces  of  scantling,  say  three  inches  square,  one  for 
each  corner,  and  one  for  the  centre  of  each  side.  Boards  of 
pine  or  hemlock,  12  or  15  feet  long  and  12  or  14  inches 
wide,  may  then  be  nailed  on  to  the  bottom  of  the  posts  for 
the  sides,  which  are  separated  by  similar  boards  at  the  ends, 
2^  feet  long.  Boards  12  inches  v/ide,  raised  above  the  lower 
ones  by  a  space  of  9  to  12  inches,  are  nailed  on  the  sides 
and  ends,  which  completes  the  rack.  The  edges  of  the 
opening  should  be  made  perfectly  smooth,  to  prevent  chafing 
or  tearing  out  the  wool.  The  largest  dimensions  above  given, 
are  suitable  for  the  large  breeds,  and  the  smallest  for  the 
Saxon,  and  still  smaller  are  proper  for  their  lambs.  These 
should  be  set  on  dry  ground,  or  under  the  sheds,  and  they 
can  easily  be  removed  wherever  necessary. 

Some  prefer  the  racks  made  with  slats,  or  smooth,  upright 
sticks,  in  the  form  of  the  usual  horse-rack.  There  is  no  ob- 
jection to  this,  but  it  should  always  be  accompanied  by  a 
board  trough  affixed  to  the  bottom,  to  catch  the  fine  hay 
which  falls  in  feeding.  These  may  be  attached  to  the  side  of 
a  building,  or  used  double.  A  small  lamb  requires  fifteen 
inches  of  space,  and  a  large  sheep  two  feet,  for  quiet,  com- 
fortable feeding ;  and  at  least  this  amount  of  room  should  be 
provided  around  the  racks  for  every  sheep. 

Troughs. 

They  may  be  variously  constructed.  The  most  economica. 
are  made  with  two  boards  of  any  convenient  length,  ten  to 
twelve  inches  wide.  Nail  the  lower  side  of  one  upon  the 
edge  of  the  other,  fastening  both  into  a  two  or  three  inch 


118  DOMESTIC    ANIMALS. 

plank,  fifteen  in-clies  long  and  a  foot  wide,  notched  in  ts  upper 
edge  in  the  fonn  required. 

Food. 

There  is  no  better  food  for  sheep,  than  well-ripened,  sound, 
timothy  hay  :  thouo-h  the  clovers,  and  nearly  all  the  cultivated 
grasses,  may  be  advantageously  fed.  Bean  and  pea  straw 
are  valuable,  and  especially  the  former,  which,  if  properly 
cured,  they  prefer  to  the  best  hay  ;  and  it  is  well  adapted  to 
the  production  of  wool.  All  the  other  straws  furnish  a  good 
food,  and  sheep  will  thrive  on  them  without  hay,  when  fed 
with  roots  or  grain. 

Roots  ought  to  be  given  them  occasionally  for  a  change, 
and  especially  to  the  ewes  after  lambing,  if  this  occurs  before 
putting  them  on  to  fresh  pasture.  They  keep  the  stomach 
properly  distended,  the  appetite  and  general  health  good  ;  and 
they  render  their  winter  forage  neariy  equal  to  then-  summer 
feed. 

Much  grain  is  not  suited  to  store-sheep.  It  is  too  rich,  and 
should  be  given  sparingly  except  to  the  lambs,  the  old  ewes,  or 
feeble  sheep,  or  to  restore  the  rams  after  hard  service.  For  the 
above  purposes,  oats  are  tlie  best ;  and  if  any  other  grain, 
beans  or  peas  are  given,  it  should  be  in  small  quantities. 
When  there  is  a  deficiency  of  hay  and  roots,  grain  mnj  be 
used  with  straw. 

The  flock  ought  to  be  so  fed  as  to  receive  the  same  amount 
of  nourishment  throughout  every  part  of  the  year.  The  even- 
ness and  value  of  the  fleece  depends  much  upon  this.  When 
the  amount  of  nutrition  is  great,  the  wool-secreting  organs  are 
distended,  and  the  fibre  becomes  enlarged  ;  when  limited,  they 
necessarily  contract,  and  the  fibre  is  small.  This  produces  a 
want  of  trueness,  v/hich  the  experienced  stapler  readily  detects, 
and  which  he  does  not  fail  to  estimate  against  the  value  of  the 
fleece. 

Sheep  ought  to  have  a  full  supply  of  salt,  and  if  accessible, 
sulphur,  ashes,  tar,  and  clay  would  frequently  be  nibbled  by 
them  when  their  stomach  required  either.  Pine  or  hemlock 
boughs  are  a  good  substitute  for  tar,  and  afford  a  most  health- 
ful change  in  the  winter-food  of  sheep.  Entire  cleanliness 
and  dryness  are  also  essential  to  the  health  of  the  flock.  The 
smaller  sizes  of  the  Saxon  may  be  well  sustained  on  two 
pounds  of  hay,  but  larger  sheep  Avill  consume  from  three  and 
a  half  to  four,  or  even  five  pounds  per  day.     Sheep,  like  al] 


RIANAGEMENT    OF    LAMBS.  119 

other  animals  when  exposed  to  cold,  will  consume  much  more 
than  if  well  protected,  or  than  during  a  Avarmer  season. 

The  Care  of  the  Ewes  with  Young 

Is  an  important  consideration,  as  the  lamb  is  sometimes  the 
only  profit  yielded  by  the  flock ;  for  when  fodder  is  high,  or 
wool  low,  the  fleece  will  barely  pay  for  the  food  and  attention. 
Pregnant  ewes  require  the  same  food  as  at  all  other  times ; 
but  caution  is  necessary  to  prevent  injury  or  abortion,  which  is 
often  the  result  of  excessive  fat,  feebleness,  or  disease.  The 
first  may  be  remedied  by  blood-letting  and  spare  diet ;  and 
both  the  last  by  restored  health  and  generous  food.  Sudden 
fright,  as  from  dogs  or  strange  objects  ;  long  or  severe  journeys ; 
great  exertions  ;  unwholesome  food  ;  blows  in  the  region  of  the 
foetus,  and  some  other  causes,  produce  abortion. 

Yeaning. 

Most  flocks  are  turned  into  the  pasture  before  yeaning  time, 
and  the  ewe  is  then  left  to  nature,  which  is  a  good  practice,  if 
she  is  healthy  and  the  weather  good.  But  a  larger  number  of 
lambs  will  be  reared  by  a  careful  oversight  of  the  ewes,  and 
the  use  of  proper  precautions.  As  their  time  approaches, 
which  may  be  known  by  the  springing  of  the  udder  and  the 
enlargement  of  the  natural  parts,  they  should  be  put  by  them- 
selves at  night,  in  a  warm  stable  or  with  others  in  the  same 
condition,  and  well  looked  after,  late  and  early  in  the  day. 

They  seldom  need  any  assistance,  nor  should  any  be  render- 
ed, except  in  case  of  wrong  presentation,  or  feebleness  in  ex- 
pelling the  foetus.  In  the  former  case,  the  shepherd  may 
apply  his  thumb  and  finger,  after  oihng,  to  push  back  the 
young,  and  assist  in  gently  turning  it  till  the  nose  and  fore-feet 
appear ;  and  for  the  latter,  only  the  slightest  aid  should  be 
rendered,  and  that  to  help  the  throes  of  the  dam. 

Management  of  Lambs. 

When  lambing  in  the  field,  only  a  few  should  be  together, 
as  the  young  sometimes  get  changed,  and  the  dams  refuse  to 
own  them.  This  difficulty  is  generally  obviated,  by  holding 
the  ewe  till  the  lamb  has  sucked  two  or  three  times ;  or  they 
may  be  shut  up  together,  and  the  lamb  rubbed  with  a  Uttle 
fine  salt.  The  lamb  does  not  require  nourishment  for  some  hours 


120  DOMESTIC    ANIMALS. 

after  its  birtli ;  but  if  the  dam  refuse  to  lick  it  as  soon  as  it 
appears,  it  must  be  carefully  wiped  dry.  If  the  weather  be 
cold  and  the  lamb  is  dropped  in  the  field,  the  shepherd  should 
be  furnished  with  large  pockets  or  a  well-lined  basket,  in 
which  it  must  be  placed  till  the  ewe  is  brought  to  the  shed. 

After  the  first  day  or  two,  the  udders  ought  to  be  com- 
pletely drained  of  their  milk  by  the  hand,  so  as  to  prevent 
swollen  or  caked  bag.  In  case  of  deficiency  of  milk,  the  lamb 
may  be  supplied  from  a  new  milch  cow,  by  means  of  a  suck- 
ing-bottle with  an  air  vent,  or  it  may  draw  a  part  of  its  nourish- 
ment from  another  ewe,  which  can  be  held  while  the  lamb  is 
sucking. 

It  is  sometimes  necessary  to  substitute  a  foster-mother,  in 
which  case,  the  ewe  may  be  made  to  own  the  lamb,  by  milk- 
ing from  her  udder  over  the  lamb  and  under  his  tail,  rubbing 
it  on  well ;  or  rub  the  adopted  lamb  with  the  entrails  and  con- 
tents of  the  stomach  of  the  dead  lamb,  or  cover  it  with  the 
skin.  If  the  ewe  proves  a  bad  nurse,  or  it  is  desirable  to 
bring  the  lambs  forward  rapidly,  they  may  be  early  taught  to 
eat  boiled  oats  or  other  grain,  cabbage,  roots,  and  tender 
hay.  Lambs  should  be  well  fed,  as  this  is  important  to  produce 
size,  constitution,  and  perfection  of  form. 

The  ewes  and  their  young  ought  to  be  divided  into  small 
flocks,  and  have  a  frequent  change  of  pasture.  Some  careful 
shepherds  adopt  the  plan  of  confining  their  lambs,  and  allow 
them  to  suck  two  or  three  times  a  day ;  by  which  they  suffer 
qo  fatigue,  and  thrive  much  faster.  But  this  is  troublesome 
ind  injurious,  as  the  exercise  is  essential  to  the  health  and 
•.onstitution  of  the  lamb  intended  for  rearing.  It  is  admissible 
mly  when  they  are  wanted  for  an  early  market,  and  by  those 
«^ho  rear  them  for  this  purpose,  it  is  a  common  practice. 

Caslratiiig  and  Docking  Lambs. 

After  selecting  enough  of  the  choicest  rams  for  stock-get- 
■^rs,  the  castrating  may  be  performed  at  any  time  between 
"'WO  and  six  weeks  old,  when  the  lamb  is  in  good  health.  A 
"^ool  day  should  be  chosen ;  or  if  v/arm,  it  must  be  done  early 
n  the  morning.  The  best  method  is  for  one  person  to  hold 
idle  lamb  firmly  between  his  legs,  on  an  inclined  plank  upon 
which  he  rests,  while  another  with  a  sharp  knife  cuts  oflf  about 
Uvo-thirds  of  the  lower  part  of  the  scrotum.  The  testicles  are 
then  drawn  out  till  the  spermatic  cord  is  reached,  which  is 
divided  by  the  thumb  nail ;  or  it  is  pulled  out  and  cut  with  a 


SUMMER    MANAGEIMENT.  121 

sharp  knife.  It  is  sometimes  done  by  simply  opening  the  scro- 
tum, when  the  testicles  and  spermatic  cold  are  jerked  out. 
The  wound  should  then  be  rinsed  with  cold  water,  after  which 
apply  lard. 

The  operation  of  docking  is  by  many  deferred  till  a  late  pe- 
riod, from  apprehension  of  too  much  loss  of  blood ;  but  if  the 
weather  be  favorable,  and  the  lamb  in  good  condition,  it  may 
be  performed  at  this  time  with  the  least  trouble  and  without 
injury.  The  tail  should  be  laid  upon  the  plank,  the  person 
holding  him  in  the  same  position  as  before.  With  one  hand 
he  draws  the  skin  towards  the  body,  while  the  other  person, 
with  a  two-inch  chisel  and  mallet,  strikes  it  off  at  a  blow,  be- 
tween the  bone  joints,  leaving  it  one  and  a  half  to  two  inches 
long.  The  skin  immediately  slips  back  over  the  wound  and  is 
soon  healed.  Ewe  lambs  should  be  docked  closer  than  the 
rams.  To  prevent  flies  and  maggots,  and  assist  in  healing,  it 
is  well  to  apply  an  ointment  composed  of  lard  and  tar,  in  the 
proportions  of  four  pounds  of  the  former  to  one  quart  of  the 
latter.  This  is  also  a  good  application  for  the  scrotum.  The 
lambs  should  be  carefully  protected  from  cold  and  wet  till  they 
are  perfectly  well. 

Tagging,  or  Clatting, 

Is  the  removal  of  such  wool  as  is  hable  to  get  fouled,  when 
the  sheep  are  turned  on  to  the  fresh  pastures,  and  of  course 
it  should  be  done  just  before  leaving  their  winter  quarters.  It 
is  most  easily  accomplished  by  placing  the  animal  on  a  low 
table,  and  then  holding  it  as  in  shearing,  till  the  operation  is 
performed.  All  the  wool  near  the  extremity  of  the  sheath, 
and  the  scrotum  of  the  males  ;  from  the  udder  of  the  ewes  ; 
and  from  below  the  dock,  the  inside  of  the  thighs,  and  the  legs 
of  the  sheep,  should  be  removed. 

Summer  Management. 

As  soon  as  the  warm  weather  approaches,  and  the  grass 
appears,  sheep  become  restive  and  impatient  for  the  pasture. 
This  instinct  should  be  repressed  till  the  ground  has  become 
thoroughly  dry,  and  the  grass  has  acquired  substance.  They 
ought,  moreover,  to  be  provided  for  the  change  of  food,  by 
the  daily  use  of  roots  for  a  few  days  before  turning  out.  It 
would  also  check  the  tendency  to  excessive  purging,  which  is 
induced  by  the  first  spring  feed,  if  they  were  housed  at  night, 
and  fed  for  the  first  few  days  with  a  little  sound,  sweet  hay. 

n 


122  DOMESTIC    ANIMALS. 

They  must  be  provided  with  pure  water,  salt,  &c.,  as  in  win- 
ter, for  though  they  may  sometimes  do  tolerably  well  without 
either,  yet  thrift  and  freedom  from  disease  are  cheaply  secured 
by  this  slight  attention. 

Dry,  sweet  pastures,  and  such  as  abound  in  aromatic  and 
bitter  plants,  are  best  suited  for  sheep-walks.  No  animal, 
with  the  exception  of  the  goat,  crops  so  great  a  variety  of 
plants.  They  eat  many  which  are  rejected  by  the  horse  and 
the  ox,  and  which  are  even  essential  to  their  own  wants.  In 
this  respect,  they  are  valuable  assistants  to  the  husbandman, 
as  they  feed  greedily  on  wild  mustard,  burdocks,  thistles, 
marsh-mallows,  milkweed,  and  various  other  offending  plants ; 
and  the  Merino  exceeds  the  more  recent  breeds  in  the  variety 
of  his  selections. 

Many  prepare  artificial  pastures  for  their  flocks.  This  may 
be  done  with  a  number  of  plants.  Winter  rye,  or  wheat  sown 
early  in  the  season,  may  be  fed  off  in  the  fall,  without  injury 
to  the  crop  ;  and  in  the  follovv'ing  spring,  the  rye  may  be  pas- 
tured till  the  stalks  shoot  up  and  begin  to  form  a  head.  This 
affords  an  early  and  nutritious  food.  Corn  may  be  sown 
broadcast,  or  thickly  in  drills,  and  either  fed  off  in  the  fields, 
or  cut  and  carried  to  the  sheep  in  their  folds.  White  mustard 
is  a  valuable  crop  for  this  purpose. 

To  give  sheep  sufficient  variety,  it  would  be  better  to  divide 
their  range  into  smaller  ones,  and  change  them  as  often  at 
least  as  once  a  week.  They  seek  a  favorite  resting-place,  on  a 
dry,  elevated  part  of  the  field,  which  soon  becomes  soiled.  By 
removing  them  from  this  for  a  few  days,  rains  will  cleanse, 
or  the  sun  dry  it,  so  as  again  to  make  it  suitable  for  them. 
More  sheep  may  be  kept,  and  in  better  condition,  where  this 
practice  is  adopted,  than  where  they  are  confined  to  the  same 
pasture. 

Washing  Sheep. 

In  most  of  that  portion  of  the  Union  north  of  40°,  the 
washing  is  performed  from  the  middle  of  May  till  the  first  of 
June,  according  to  the  season  and  climate.  When  the  streams 
are  Imrd,  which  is  frequently  the  case  in  limestone  regions,  it 
is  better  to  do  this  immediately  after  an  abundant  rain,  by 
which  the  lime  derived  from  the  springs  is  proportionally 
lessened.  The  practice  of  a  large  majority  of  our  farmers,  is 
to  drive  their  sheep  to  the  washing-ground  early  in  the  morn- 
ing on  a  warm  day,  leaving  ti^e  lambs  behind.  The  sheep  are 
confined  on  the  bank  of  the  stream  by  a  temporary  enclosure ; 


WASHING    SHEEP.  123 

from  wliicli  they  are  taken,  and  if  not  too  heavy,  are  cairied 
into  water  sufficiently  deep  to  prevent  their  touching  bottom. 
They  are  then  washed,  by  gently  squeezing  the  fleece  with  the 
hands,  after  which  they  are  led  ashore,  and  as  much  of  the 
water  pressed  out  as  possible  before  letting  them  go,  as  the 
great  weight  retained  in  the  wool  frequently  staggers  and 
throws  them  down. 

A  good  practice  is  to  lead  the  sheep  into  the  water  and  sat- 
urate the  fleece,  after  which  they  are  taken  ashore.  When 
they  commence  steaming,  they  are  again  led  into  the  water, 
and  washed  clean.  This  insures  thorough  cleansing,  where 
the  water  is  pure.  Others  make  use  of  a  boat,  one  end  of 
which  rests  on  a  bold  shore,  and  ihe  other  is  in  deep  water. 
The  operator  stands  in  the  boat  and  plunges  the  animal  over 
the  side,  when  the  washing  is  performed.  It  is  sometimes 
done  by  sinking  a  tight  hogshead  or  large  box  in  the  water, 
with  heavy  weights,  in  which  a  man  stands,  and  the  sheep  are 
brought  or  led  to  him  by  another  person,  v.^ho  walks  on  a  plat- 
form reaching  from  the  bank  to  the  hogshead.  Either  of  the 
last  methods  obviates  the  necessity  of  standing  for  a  long 
time  in  water,  by  which  colds,  rheumatism,  &c.  are  frequently 
contracted.  In  parts  of  Germany,  and  sometimes  in  this 
country,  sheep  are  forced  to  swim  across  a  narrow  stream 
several  times,  by  which  the  fleece  is  tolerably  cleaned,  if  all 
the  water  be  pressed  out  when  they  get  to  the  land.  The  yolk 
being  a  saponaceous  compound,  and  not  an  oil)^  matter  as  is 
generally  supposed,  it  readily  combines  with  the  water  and 
passes  out  of  the  wool. 

An  excellent  practice,  when  streams  are  not  convenient,  is 
to  lead  a  small  ripple  of  soft  water  into  a  tub.  To  this,  a  little 
soap  is  added,  after  wliich  the  sheep  are  immersed  and  thor- 
oughly cleansed.  Perfect  whiteness  and  purity  of  the  fleece 
is  readily  secured  afterwards,  by  throwing  over  the  sheep  a 
jet  of  water.  This  practice  has  a  good  eff'ect,  in  preventing 
or  removing  cutaneous  disorders,  and  destroying  ticks  or  other 
vermin. 

Many  judicious  farmers  object  to  washing  sheep,  from  its 
tendency  to  produce  colds  and  catarrhal  aftections,  to  which 
sheep  are  particularly  subject ;  but  it  cannot  well  be  dispensed 
with,  as  the  wool  is  always  more  saleable,  and  if  carefully 
done,  need  not  be  attended  with  injury.  Warm  settled  weath- 
er, however,  is  indispensable  to  washing  with  safety  to  ths 
general  health  of  the  sheep. 


124 


DOMESTIC    ANIMALS. 


Fig.  26  shows  a  ewe,  witli  lines  indicating  the  usual  method 
of  sorting  wool ;  number  1  indicating  the  refina  or  picklock ; 
2  and  3,  the  second  and  third  qualities. 

Fig.  26. 


Wool  Sorting 


SlieariBg, 


The  manner  of  shearing  varies  with  almost  every  district ; 
but  as  this  is  an  art  to  be  acquired  under  a  skilful  master,  we 
shall  omit  particular  details  on  the  subject.  First  clip  all  the 
tags  and  filth,  if  any  remains  or  has  been  accumulated  after 
the  tagging  in  the  spring  ;  then  take  off  the  fleece  and  spread 
it  with  the  outside  uppermost  on  a  smooth  bench  or  table,  and 
push  the  wool  carefully  together,  to  render  it  more  compact ; 
double  the  sides  over  to  the  centre  ;  throw  the  clean  loose 
locks  into  tht.  middle,  and  roll  together  from  each  end.  This 
makes  a  smooth,  dense  package,  which  is  secured  by  passing 
a  stout  twine  one  or  more  times  around  the  sides  and  ends. 
AH  the  wool  from  the  extremities,  should  be  closely  sheared 


SMEARING  OR  SALVING  SHEEP.  125 

and  saved  by  itself,  before  dismissing  the  slieep,  but  not  put 
up  with  choice  fleeces. 

If  wounds  are  made,  which  is  sometimes  the  case  with  un- 
skilful operators,  a  mixture  of  tar  and  grease  ought  to  be  ap- 
plied. After  shearing,  such  horns  and  hoofs  as  are  likely  to 
be  troublesome,  should  be  sawed  and  pared. 

The  hranding,  or  marking,  is  essential  to  distinguish  them 
from  other  flocks,  and  this  is  done  on  the  shoulder,  side,  or 
buttock,  A  brush  or  marking-iron 'is  used  for  this  purpose, 
with  paint  made  of  lampblack,  to  which  a  little  spirits  of 
turpentine  is  first  added,  and  then  diluted  with  linseed  or 
lard  oil. 

If  the  weather  be  cool,  and  especially,  if  severe  storms  oc- 
cur after  washino^  or  shearino-,  the  flock  should  be  housed.  If 
sultry,  they  should  have  a  cool,  shady  retreat,  where  they  will 
be  shielded  from  the  flies  and  the  heat.  Blisters  and  perma- 
nent injury  to  the  skin  and  fleece,  are  frequently  the  result  of 
such  exposure.  Shade  trees  in  their  pastures,  contribute  much 
to  the  comfort  of  sheep,  when  exposed  to  a  blazing  sun.  A 
close  examination  of  the  skin  should  be  made  at  shearing,  for 
the  detection  of  disease  or  vermin. 

For  remedies,  see  article  diseases. 

Smearing  or  Salving  Sheep 

Is  a  custom  Httle  practised  in  this  country.  For  cold,  ele- 
vated, and  bleak  exposures,  it  may  be  necessary,  and  it  is,  there- 
fore, generally  adopted  in  Scotland.  The  object  is,  to  prevent 
cutaneous  diseases  and  vermin,  and  furnish  additional  warmth 
and  protection  to  the  fleeces  of  such  breeds  as  are  deficient  in 
yolk.  It  is  usually  performed  in  the  latter  part  of  October, 
but  is  sometimes  done  immediately  after  shearing. 

The  mixture  or  salve  consists  of  tar  and  butter  or  grease,  in 
diff"erent  proportions  ;  1  gallon  of  the  former  to  12,  or  some- 
times 20  lbs.  of  the  latter;  the  greater  proportion  of  tar  being 
required  for  the  younger  sheep,  or  for  more  exposed  situations. 
The  grease  is  melted  over  the  fire,  and  the  tar  stirred  in,  and 
when  sufficiently  cool,  it  is  applied  to  the  whole  body  of  the 
sheep,  b}'-  carefully  parting  the  wool  and  rubbing  it  on  the 
skin  with  the  fingers.  The  above  quantity  is  sufficient  for  30 
or  50  sheep,  according  to  their  size  and  the  character  of  the 
wool. 

This  appHcation  is  not  required  for  fine-woolled  sheep, 
whose  fleeces  are  more  appropriately  protected  bj  a  natural 

11* 


126  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS. 

secretion  of  yolk ;  and  it  is  better  to  omit  it  in  all  cases,  where 
the  health  and  comfort  of  the  animal  do  not  render  it  abso- 
lutely essential.  Mr.  Stewart,  an  experienced  Scotch  shepherd, 
uses  only  tallow  and  train  oil,  mixed  in  equal  proportions.  He 
asserts,  that  the  improvement  in  the  growth  and  quality  of  the 
wool  is  at  least  one-third,  and  it  materially  benefits  the  con- 
dition of  the  sheep. 

Weaning. 

The  lambs  may  be  weaned  from  3 J  to  4  months  old.  They 
should  be  put  upon  rich,  sweet  feed,  but  not  too  luxuriant ; 
while  the  dams  are  turned  upon  the  poorest,  and  so  remote 
from  their  young,  as  to  be  out  of  sight  and  hearing.  The 
ewes  ought  to  be  carefully  examined  after  a  day  or  two,  and 
if  necessary,  the  milk  removed  vvith  the  hand.  If  it  continues 
to  accumulate,  the  ewe  ma}^  be  fed  on  hay  for  a  few  days. 

When  thoroughly  dried  off,  they  should  have  the  best  fare, 
to  enable  them  to  recover  condition  for  subsequent  breeding 
and  wintering.  The  fall  is  a  critical  period  to  lose  flesh,  either 
for  sheep  or  lambs  ;  and  if  any  are  found  deficient,  they  should 
be  at  once  provided  with  extra  feed  and  attention.  If  cold 
weather  overtakes  them  poor  or  in  ill-health,  they  will  scarcely 
outlive  it ;  or  if  by  chance  they  survive,  their  emaciated  car- 
cass, impaired  constitution,  and  scant  fleece,  will  ill  repay  the 
food  and  attention  they  Avill  have  cost. 

The  time  for  taking  Slieep  from  the  Pastures. 

This  must  depend  on  the  state  of  the  weather  and  food 
Severe  frosts  destroy  much  of  the  nutriment  in  the  grasses,  ana 
they  soon  after  cease  to  afford  adequate  nourishment.  Long 
exposure  to  cold  storms,  with  such  food  to  sustain  them,  will 
rapidly  reduce  their  condition.  The  only  safe  rule  is  to  trans- 
fer them  to  their  winter-quarters  the  first  day  they  cease  to 
thrive  abroad. 

Drafting  the  Flock, 

For  the  purpose  of  ridding  it  of  the  supernumeraries, 
should  be  done  at  an  earlier  day.  Such  of  the  wethers  as 
have  attained  their  prime,  and  those  ewes  that  have  passed  it, 
ought  to  be  withdrawn  soon  after  shearing,  provided  with  the 
best  feed,  and  rapidly  fitted  for  the  shambles.  If  they  have 
been  properly  pushed  on  grass,  the}^  will  be  in  good  flesh  by 
the  time  they  are  taken  from  it ;  and  if  not  intended  for  stall- 
fcBding,  the  sooner  they  are  then  disposed  of  the  better. 


MANAGEMENT  OF  SHEEP  FOR  THE  PRAIRIES  127 

Stall-Feeding. 

This  will  be  lost  on  an  ill-shaped,  unthrifty  beast.  The 
perfection  of  form  and  health,  and  the  uniform  good  condition, 
which  characterize  the  thrifty  one,  indicate  too  plainly  to  be 
misunderstood,  those  which  will  best  repay  the  care  of  their 
owner.  The  selection  of  any  indifferent  animal  for  stall-fat- 
tening, whether  cattle  or  sheep,  will  inevitably  be  attended 
with  loss.  Such  ought  to  be  got  rid  of  when  first  brought 
from  the  pasture,  for  the  most  they  will  bring. 

Management  of  Slieep  for  the  Prairies. 

When  destined  for  the  prairies,  sheep  ought  to  commence 
their  journey  as  early  after  shearing  as  possible.  They  are 
then  disencumbered  of  their  fleece,  and  do  not  catch  and  re- 
tain as  much  dust,  as  when  driven  late:-'.  Feed  is  also  gener- 
ally better,  and  the  roads  are  dry  and  hard.  Young  and 
healthy  sheep  should  be  selected,  with  early  lambs;  rr  if  the 
latter  are  too  young,  and  the  distance  great,  they  should  be 
left  and  the  ewes  dried  off.  A  large  wagon  ought  to  accom- 
pany the  flock,  to  carry  such  as  occasionally  give  out ;  or  they 
may  be  disposed  of  whenever  they  become  enfeebled.  With 
good  care,  a  hardy  flock  may  be  diiven  at  the  rate  of  12  or 
14  miles  a  day.  Constant  watchfulness  is  requisite,  to  keep 
them  healthy  and  in  good  plight.  One-half  the  expense  of 
driving,  may  be  saved  by  the  use  of  well-trained  shepherd- 
dogs. 

When  arrived  at  their  destination,  they  must  be  thoroughly 
washed,  to  free  them  from  all  dirt,  and  closely  examined  as  to 
any  diseases  they  may  have  contracted,  which,  if  discovered, 
should  be  promptly  removed.  A  variety  of  suitable  food  and 
good  shelter  must  be  provided,  for  the  autumn,  winter,  and 
spring  ensuing,  and  every  necessary  attention  given  them. 
This  would  be  necessary  if  indigenous  to  the  country ;  how 
much  more  so,  when  they  have  just  undergone  a  campaign, 
to  which  neither  they  nor  their  race  have  been  accustomed ! 

Sheep  cannot  be  kept  on  the  prairies  without  much  care, 
artificial  food,  and  proper  attention  ;  and  from  a  false  system 
of  economy,  hitherto  attempted  by  many,  losses  have  occurred 
from  disease  and  mortality  in  the  flocks,  sufficient  to  have 
made  ample  provision  foi"  the  comfort  and  security  of  twice 
the  number  lost.  More  especially  do  they  require  proper 
food  and  attention,  after  the  first  severe  frosts  set  in,  which 
wither  and  kill  the  natural  grasses.     By  nibbling  at  the  fog^ 


128  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS. 

(the  frostbitten,  dead  grass,)  they  are  inevitably  subject  to 
constipation,  whicli  a  bountiful  supply  of  roots,  sulphur,  &c., 
is  alone  sufficient  to  remove. 

Roots,  grain,  and  good  hay  ;  straw,  or  corn-stalks,  pea  or 
bean  vines,  are  essential  to  the  preservation  of  their  health  and 
thrift  during  the  winter,  everywhere  north  of  39°.  In  sum- 
mer, the  natural  herbage  is  sufficient  to  sustain  them  in  fine 
condition,  till  they  shall  have  acquu-ed  a  denser  population  of 
animals,  when  it  will  be  found  necessary  to  stock  their  meadows 
with  the  best  varieties  of  artificial  grasses. 

The  prairies  seem  adapted  to  the  usual  varieties  of  sheep 
introduced  into  the  United  States  ;  and  of  such  are  the  flocks 
made  up,  according  to  the  taste  or  judgment  of  the  owners. 
Shepherd-dogs  are  invaluable  to  the  owners  of  flocks,  in  those 
nnfenced,  illimitable  ranges,  both  as  a  defence  against  the 
small  prairie-wolf,  which  prowls  around  the  sheep,  but  which 
are  rapidly  thinning  off"  by  the  settlers  ;  and  also  as  assistants 
to  the  s>epherds  in  driving  and  herding  their  flocks  on  the 
open  ground. 

DISEASES  OF  SHEEP. 

The  dry  and  healthful  climate,  the  rolling  surface,  and  the 
sweet  and  varied  herbage,  which  generally  prevail  in  the 
United  States,  insure  perfect  health  to  an  originally  sound  and 
well-selected  flock,  unless  peculiarly  exposed  to  disease.  No 
country  is  better  suited  to  sheep,  than  most  of  the  northei'n 
and  some  of  the  southern  parts  of  our  own.  In  Europe,  and 
especially  in  England,  where  the  system  of  management  is 
necessarily  in  the  highest  degree  artificial,  consisting  fre- 
quently in  early  and  continued  forcing  the  system,  folding  on 
wet,  plowed  grounds,  and  the  excessive  use  of  that  watery 
food,  the  Swedes  turnip,  there  are  numerous  and  fatal  dis- 
eases. Hence  the  long  list  which  lumbers  the  pages  of  for- 
eign writers  on  sheep. 

The  most  destructive  of  these  are  the  rot,  and  epidemics 
which  are  scarcely  known  in  America,  except  by  report.  The 
diseases  incident  to  our  flocks  may  generally  be  considered  as 
casualties,  rather  than  as  inbred,  or  necessarily  arising  from 
the  quality  of  food,  or  from  local  causes.  It  may  be  safely 
asserted,  that  with  a  dry  pasture,  well  stocked  with  varied 
and  nutritious  grasses ;  a  clear,  running  stream  ;  sufficient  shade 
and  prote^ion  against  severe  storms ;  a  constant  supply  of 
dalt,  tar,  and  sulphur  in  su^amer;  good  hay,  and  sometimes 


DIARRHCEA    OR    SCOURS.  129 

roots,  with  ample  shelters  in  wiirter ;  young  sheep,  originally 
sound  and  healtliy,  will  seldom  or  never  get  diseased  on 
American  soil. 

The  few  diseases  which  it  may  be  necessary  here  to  mention, 
will  be  treated  in  the  simplest  manner.  Remedies  of  general 
application,  to  be  administered  often  by  the  unskilful  and 
ignorant,  must  neither  be  elaborate  nor  comphcated ;  and,  if 
expensive,  the  lives  of  most  sheep  would  be  dearly  purchased 
by  their  application. 

A  sheep  which  the  owner  has  reared  or  purchased  at  the 
ordinary  price,  is  the  only  domestic  animal  which  can  die 
without  material  loss  to  its  owner.  The  wool  and  pelt  will, 
in  most  instances,  repay  its  cost,  while  the  carcasses  of  other 
animals  will  be  worthless  except  for  manure.  The  loss  of 
sheep  from  occasional  disease,  will  leave  the  farmer's  pocket 
in  a  very  different  condition  from  the  loss  of  an  equal  value 
in  horses  or  cattle.  Yet  humanity,  equally  with  interest,  dic- 
tates the  use  of  such  simple  remedies  for  the  removal  of  suffer- 
ing and  disease,  as  may  be  within  reach. 

BiarrlicBa  or  Scours, 

When  light  and  not  long  continued,  calls  for  no  remedy. 
It  is  a  healthful  provision  of  nature  for  the  more  rapid  expul- 
sion of  some  offending  matter  in  the  system,  which,  if  retained, 
might  lead  to  disease.  It  is  generally  owing  to  improper  food, 
as  bad  hay  or  noxious  weeds ;  to  a  sudden  change,  as  from 
dry  food  to  fresh  grass ;  or  to  an  excess,  as  from  overloading 
the  stomach ;  and  sometimes,  from  cold  and  wet. 

The  remedies  are  obvious. 

Change  to  suitable  food  in  the  first  two  cases  ;  enforce  ab- 
stinence after  repletion  ;  and  provide  warm,  dry  shelter,  with 
light  diet,  if  owing  to  the  latter  causes. 

When  severe  or  long  continued,  a  dose  of  castor  oil  may  be 
given,  and  after  its  operation,  give  four  grains  of  opium  and 
one  ounce  chalk,  and  put  them  on  dry  food.  Wheat-bran  or 
shorts,  and  oat-meal  or  flaxseed  g~'"c',  are  both  good  for 
ailing  lambs  and  sheep ;  as  are  also  ripe  oats  or  wheat,  fed  in 
the  sheaf,  with  well  cured,  sweet  hay,  and  plenty  of  salt. 
Fresh  boughs  of  the  juniper,  or  pine  and  hemlock,  help  to 
che-ck  the  disorder. 

Locseness  in  the  larger  lamhs  is  prevented  by  ha\ing  chalk 
within  their  reach ;  or  if  they  refuse  it,  administer  it  in  their 
food.     When  it  happens  soon  after  birth,  place  it  with  the 


130  DOMESTIC    ANIMALS. 

ewe  in  a  warm  place,  and  feed  the  latter  with  plenty  of  oats, 
or  other  sound  grain.  If  the  milk  be  deficient,  give  the  lamb 
cow's  milk  scalded,  or  let  it  suck  the  cow.  The  tail  is  some- 
times glued  on  to  the  buttocks,  Avhile  the  scours  continue. 
Separate  it  immediately  by  the  use  of  warm  water,  and  rub 
the  parts  with  dry  loam  or  clay. 

Dysentery. 

This  is  a  different  and  frequently  a  fatal  disease,  but  re- 
sembles the  former  in  its  general  symptoms.  It  is  owing  to 
prolonged  diarrhoea,  unwholesome  or  meager  food,  and  other 
causes.  Bleeding  and  physic  should  be  resorted  to,  after 
which  give  warm,  nourishing  gruel. 

Hoven. 

For  description  and  remedies,  see  hoven  in  cattle. 

Braxy. 

This  is  manifested  by  uneasiness,  loathing  of  food,  frequent 
drinking,  carrying  the  head  down,  drawing  the  back  up, 
swollen  belly,  feveiish  symptoms,  and  avoidance  of  the  flock. 
It  appears  mostly  in  late  autumn  and  spring,  and  may  be  in- 
duced by  exposure  to  severe  storms,  plunging  in  water  when 
hot,  and  especially  by  constipation  brought  on  by  feeding  on 
frostbitten,  putrid,  or  indigestible  herbage. 

Remedies  o^re  not  often  successful,  unless  promptly  applied. 
Bleed  freely,  and  to  effect  this,  in  consequence  of  the  stagnant 
state  of  the  blood,  immersion  in  a  tub  of  hot  water  may  be 
necessary.  Then  give  two  ounces  Epsom  salts,  dissolved  in 
warm  water,  with  a  handful  of  common  salt. 

If  this  is  unsuccessful,  give  a  clyster  made  with  a  pipe-full 
of  tobacco,  boiled  for  a  few  minutes  in  a  pint  of  water. 
Administer  half,  and  if  this  is  not  effectual,  follow  with  the 
remainder.  Then  bev^  vl^o  animal  in  dry  straw  and  cover 
with  blankets,  and  assist  the  purgatives  with  warm  gruels, 
followed  by  laxative  provender  till  well. — [Blacklock.)  Thou- 
sands of  sheep  have  died  on  the  prairies  from  braxy,  in- 
duced by  exposure  and  miserable  forage.  Entire  preven- 
tion is  secured  by  warm,  dry  shelters,  and  nutritious,  digesti- 
ble food. 


DISEASES    IN    SHEEP.  131 


Costiveness. 


This  is  removed  by  giving  two  tablespoonfuls  of  castor 
oil  every  twelve  hours,  till  the  difficulty  is  removed ;  or  give  one 
ounce  Epsom  salts.  This  may  be  assisted  by  an  injection  of 
warm,  weak  suds  and  molasses. 

Stretches. 

Sheep  sometimes  stretch  out  their  noses  on  the  ground,  and 
around  their  sides,  as  if  in  severe  pain.  This  may  be  caused 
by  an  involution  of  one  part  of  the  intestine  within  another. 
When  owing  to  this  cause,  the  difficulty  is  frequently  re- 
moved by  jerking  the  animal  by  the  hind-legs  several  times, 
when  the  pain  disappears. 

But  it  is  generally  occasioned  by  costiveness,  which  see 
above.  This  may  be  prevented  by  using  green  food,  roots, 
&c.,  once  a  week,  or  by  allowing  them  to  browse  on  the  ever- 
greens, pines,  hemlock,  and  firs. 

Poison, 

From  laurel  and  other  plants,  is  cured  by  pouring  a  gill  of 
melted  lard  down  the  tliroat,  or  boil  for  an  hour  the  twigs  of 
the  white  ash,  and  give  half  to  one  gill  of  the  strong  liquor 
immediately ;  to  be  repeated  if  not  successful. 

Inflammation  of  the  Lungs. 

This  is  produced  by  improper  exposure  to  cold  and  wet. 
The  remedy  for  slight  affections,  is  warm,  dry  shelter,  and 
light  food.  "When  severe,  resort  must  be  had  to  bleeding  and 
purging  freely,  then  to  light  bran  or  linseed  mashes. 

Rot. 

This  sometimes  causes  the  death  of  a  million  of  sheep  in  a 
single  year  in  England,  yet  it  is  a  disease  almost  unknown 
in  this  country.  Foreign  authorities  ascribe  it  entirely  to 
excessive  humidity  of  climate,  wet  pastm-es,  or  too  watery 
food. 

The  preventives  are  therefore  obvious.  After  the  use  of 
dry  food  and  dry  bedding,  one  of  the  best  is  the  abundant 
use  of  pure  salt.  In  violent  attacks,  early  bleeding,  followed 
by  a  dose  of  two  ounces  Epsom  salts,  to  be  repeated  if  neces- 
sary, with  a  change  of  diet  and  location,  is  all  that  can  be  done. 


132  DOMESTIC    ANIMALS. 


Foot-Rot. 


This  is  frequently  a  prevalent  disease  among  American 
sheep.  It  is  sometimes  spontaneous,  but  more  often  pro- 
duced by  contagion.  In  the  former  case,  it  is  caused  by  soft, 
rich,  or  moist  pastures.  A  dry  gravelly  or  rocky  range, 
will  of  course  be  an  effectual  preventive  when  owing  to  this 
cause. 

The  disorder  is  communicated  by  the  absorbents  of  the 
foot  coming  in  contact  with  the  suppuration  which  has  been 
left  on  the  ground  from  the  diseased  part.  Absolute  safety 
against  this  contagion  is  secured  only  by  a  total  avoidance  of 
the  walks  of  the  infected  animals,  till  repeated  rains,  or  what 
is  better,  frosts,  have  disarmed  the  virus  of  its  malignity. 

Remedies  are  variously  compounded,  of  blue  vitriol,  verdigris, 
tar,  spirits  of  turpentine,  alum,  saltpetre,  salt,  lime,  copperas, 
white-lead,  antimony,  alcohol,  mine,  vinegar,  &c.,  all  of  which 
have  proved  effectual. 

The  hoof  should  first  be  pared  and  thoroughly  scraped. 
Then  apply  a  wash  made  of  tliree  parts  of  blue  vitriol,  one  of 
verdigris  pulverized  finely,  with  scalding  (not  boiling)  vinegar; 
stirring  briskly  till  it  is  of  the  consistenee  ol  thin  cream,  and 
put  it  upon  the  affected  part  with  a  paint  brush.  It  is  a 
good  preventive,  to  apply  this  to  the  sound  feet  of  the  affected 
animal. 

Another  remedy  is  to  use  spirits  of  turpentine  after  scra- 
ping ;  and  if  the  disease  is  of  long  standing,  add  to  the  tur- 
pentine a  strong  decoction  of  blue  vitriol  dissolved  in  water. 
The  foot  should  be  examined  every  week,  and  the  remedy  re- 
peated till  perfect  soundness  is  restored. 

A  feather  dipped  in  muriatic  or  nitric  acid,  and  applied  to 
the  parts  after  scraping  and  cleansing,  is  a  good  remedy. 
When  put  upon  the  soles  of  foot-sore  sheep,  it  hardens  the 
hoofs,  and  enables  them  to  travel  better. 

Sheep  are  sometimes  cured  by  keeping  them  on  a  dry  sur- 
face, and  driving  over  a  barn-floor  dail}'-,  which  is  well  covered 
with  quicklime.  It  may  also  be  cured  by  dryness,  and  re- 
peated washing  with  soap-suds. 

The  above  ailment  should  not  be  confounded  with  a  tempo- 
rary soreness,  or  inflammation  of  the  hoof,  occasioned  by  the 
irritation  from  the  long,  rough  grasses  which  abound  in  low 
situations,  which  is  removed  v/ith  the  cause  ;  or  if  it  continues, 
apply  white  paint  or  tar,  after  thorough  washing. 


PROTECTION    FROM   THE  GAD-FLY.  133 


Corrosion  of  tlie  Fiesh  by  Flies  or  Maggots, 

Maybe  cmed  by  first  removing  the  vermin ;  then  wash  with 
Castile  soap  and  warm  soft  water,  after  which  apply  white-lead 
with  linseed  oil.  Tar  put  on  the  festering  wound  corrodes  it ; 
but  this,  or  spirits  of  turpentine  placed  on  the  sound  parts  near 
it,  kee^>  off  the  flies  by  their  strong  effluvia. 

If  tlie  wound  be  slight,  and  the  weather  moderate,  apply  a 
little  sj  irits  of  turpentine  with  a  strong  decoction  of  elder  bark. 

Flies  on  Sheep 

May  be  prevented  by  smeariufx  with  a  composition  made  of 
two  pounds  lard  or  soft  grease,  one  pound  sulphur,  half  pint 
oil  of  amber,  or  oil  of  tar,  or  tar  alone.  A  small  spoonful  is 
sufficient  for  a  sheep.- — Genesee  Farmer. 

Protection  froji  the  Gad-Fly. 

In  July,  August,  and  September,  in  the  Northern  states,  the 
gad-jiy  {CEstus  ovis)  attacks  the  nostrils  of  the  sheep,  and  there 
deposites  its  eggs,  which,  on  being  hatched,  immediately  crawl 
up  and  make  a  lodgment  in  tht-  1  ead.  They  are  frequently 
repelled  by  laying  a  thick  coat  oi  lar  on  the  bott-om  of  the 
troughs,  and  sprinkling  it  with  salt.  The  smell  of  the  tar  ad- 
hering to  the  nose  will  drive  off  the  fly.  A  more  effectual 
remedy  is  to  apply  it  thoroughly  with  a  brush  to  the  external 
part  of  the  nose. 

If  a  few  furrows  of  loose  earth  are  turned  up  in  their  pas- 
tures, the  sheep  will  hold  their  noses  to  them,  and  thus  keep 
ol0F  the  fly. 

The  symptoms  of  grubs  in  the  head,  are  drooping  of  the 
head  and  ears,  discharge  of  bloody  and  v^-atery  matter  from  the 
nostrils,  and  loss  of  strength  in  the  limbs. 

If  worms  have  made  a  lodgment,  take  half  a  pound  of  good 
Scotch  snuff,  and  two  quarts  boiling  water :  stir,  and  let  it  stand 
till  cold.  Inject  about  a  tablespoonful  of  this  liquid  and  sed- 
iment up  each  nostiil,  with  a  syringe.  Repeat  this  three  or 
four  times  at  intervals,  from  the  middle  of  October  till  Janua- 
ry :  the  grubs  are  then  small,  and  will  not  have  injured  the 
sheep.  The  efficacy  of  the  snufi  will  be  increased,  by  adding 
half  an  ounce  assafoetida,  pounded  in  a  little  water.  The  ef- 
fect on  the  sheep  is  immediate  prostration  and  apparent  death, 
but  they  will  soon  recover.  A  decoction  of  tobacco  will  aftbrd 
a  substitute  for  snuff".— iV.  Eng.  Far. 

12 


134  DOMESTIC    ANlxMALS. 

Blacklock's  remedy  is,  to  half  fill  the  bowl  of  a  pipe  with 
tobacco,  light  it,  and  then  hold  the  sheep,  while  a  person  in- 
serts the  stem  some  distance  into  the  nostril,  and  blows  a  few 
whiffs  into  the  nose.  The  operation  is  then  repeated  with  the 
other  nostril. 

Swollen  Mouth 

Is  sometimes  fatal.  It  is  said  to  be  cured  by  daubing  the 
lips  and  mouth  plentifully  with  tar. — Albany  Cultivator. 

Foul  Noses. 

Dip  a  small  swab  into  tar,  then  roll  in  salt.  Put  some  on 
the  nose,  and  compel  the  sheep  to  swallow  a  small  quantity. — 
American  Far. 

A  disease  indicated  by  drooping,  running  at  the  eyes,  weak- 
ness in  the  back  and  loins,  inability  to  use  the  hind  legs,  was 
removed  by  turning  the  sheep  into  a  pasture  containing  lobe- 
lia, {^Indian  tobacco.)  Dried  lobelia  was  also  given,  and  pro- 
duced the  same  effect. —  Cultivator. 

Scab. 

This  loathsome  disease,  to  which  fine-woolled  sheep  are  par- 
ticularly liable,  is  caused,  like  itch  in  the  human  subject,  by  a 
small  insect,  a  species  of  the  acari.  It  is  first  manifest  by  the 
rubbing  of  the  sheep,  and  soon  after  by  one  or  more  tufts  of 
wool,  which  is  loosened  at  the  roots.  On  feeling  the  skin,  a 
hard,  dry  lumor  is  perceptible.  To  prevent  contagion,  re- 
move the  infected  sheep  to  a  separate  pasture  or  yard  as  soon 
as  discovered. 

Remedies. — The  Spanish  shepherds  dissolve  a  Uttle  salt  in 
their  mouth,  and  drop  it  upon  the  infected  part. 

When  the  tumor  has  become  enlarged,  the  wool  should  be 
removed  closely  to  the  skin,  the  scab  scraped  with  a  curry- 
comb, then  wash  with  strong  soap-suds  or  ley,  and  afterwards 
rub  thoroughly  with  sulphur  or  brimstone,  mixed  with  lard  or 
grease. 

An  effectual  remedy  is  prepared  by  taking  one  pound  of  to- 
bacco, which  add  to  12  quarts  ley  from  wood  ashes  of  suffi- 
cient strength  for  Avashing,  and  four  quarts  urine ;  to  this  add 
another  mixture  of  a  gill  high-wines ;  ^  oz.  camphor  ;  \  oz. 
Spanish  brown,  and  ^  gill  spirits  of  turpentine.  A  small  quan- 
tity of  this  apphed  to  the  sore  will  never  fail, 

Imraediately  after  shearing,  scab  may  readily  be  cured  by 


TICKS  AND  LICE PELT-ROT.  135 

immersing  tlie  sheep,  (excepting  the  head,)  in  a  strong  decoc- 
tion of  tobacco  liquor,  adding  a  gill  of  spirits  of  turpentine  for 
the  first,  and  making  a  slight  addition  of  fresh  liquid  for  each 
sheep,  enough  to  keep  up  the  strength  of  the  tobacco  and  tur- 
pentine, and  taking  care  to  rub  the  affected  part  thoroughly. 
For  lambs,  this  liquor  should  be  diluted,  but  yet  left  strong 
enough  to  kill  ticks  in  one  or  two  minutes,  which  may  be 
ascertained  by  experiment. 

Scab  is  also  removed  by  using  a  composition  of  one  pound 
plug  tobacco  to  three  gallons  of  water,  with  lime-water  and 
oil  of  vitriol  added ;  or  a  decoction  of  hellebore  with  vinegar, 
sulphur,  and  spirits  of  turpentine. — [H.  B.  Grove.) 

Scab  is  propagated  more  by  using  the  same  rubbing  posts, 
than  by  contact  with  each  other.  Sheep  in  low  condition  are 
more  subject  to  it  than  others. 

Ticks  and  Lice 

Sometimes  infest  sheep.  Good  feeding  ana  shelter  is  a 
partial  preventive,  but  when  they  have  made  their  lodgment, 
they  must  be  dipped  in  a  decoction  of  tobacco  water.  The 
most  effectual  time  for  their  destruction,  is  a  few  days  after 
shearing,  when  they  will  have  left  the  naked  bodies  of  the  old 
ewes,  to  hide  in  the  fleeces  of  the  lambs.  The  dipping  in 
tobacco  water,  with  the  addition  of  a  small  quantity  of  tur- 
pentine, is  an  effectual  remedy. 

After  dipping  the  sheep  or  lambs,  the  liquor  should  be 
pressed  out  from  the  wool,  upon  an  inclined  plane,  so  arranged 
as  again  to  run  into  the  vessel. 

Pelt-rot 

Will  be  recognised  as  one  of  the  staple  diseases  of  our 
native  sheejo,  described  on  page  89.  The  wool  in  this  case 
falls  off,  leaving  the  sheep  partially  or  almost  wholly  naked ; 
but  this  is  not  accompanied  with  soreness  or  apparent  disease. 
The  animal  must  be  provided  with  a  warm  stall  and  generous 
feed,  and  the  naked  skin  should  be  anointed  with  tar  and 
grease.     The  preventive  is  good  keeping  and  shelter. 

Staggers  or  Sturdy,  and  Water  in  the  Head, 

Som'  jtimes  affect  sheep,  but  more  especially  lambs  under  a 
year  old.    The  first  is  caused  by  the  hydatid.    It  is  considered 


136  DOMESTIC     \NIMALS. 

as  an  almost  incurable  disorder,  but  is  sometimes  removed  Dy 
trepanning. 

Chancellor  Livingston  carefully  supplied  two  thus  attacked, 
with  food  for  three  months,  when  nature  effected  a  cure.  Re- 
moval to  dry  lands  and  purging,  is  a  good  precaution  when 
they  are  first  taken. 

An  English  lad  lately  cured  one  which  had  beea  given 
up,  by  boring  with  a  gimlet  into  the  soft  place  on  the  head, 
when  the  water  rushed  out,  and  the  sheep  immediately  followed 
the  others  to  the  pasture.  A  correspondent  of  the  Albany 
Cultivator  asserts,  that  ^  a  pir.t  of  melted  lard  poured  down 
the  throat,  will  cure  bhnd  staggers  in  ten  minutes. 

Abortion 

Occurs  sometimes,  and  is  usually  caused  by  excessive  fright 
or  exertion,  and  sometimes  by  severe  exposure  and  poor  feed. 
It  is  seldom  fatal,  except  to  the  lamb. 

The  Uterus 

Is  occasionally  protruded  after  lambing.  It  should  be  im- 
mediately returned,  first  washing  it  in  warm  milk  and  water,  if 
any  dirt  adheres  to  it.  For  this,  the  hand  only  should  be 
used.  After  rubbing  it  with  lard  or  oil,  hold  up  the  hind  legs, 
and  gently  replace  the  protruded  parts,  then  keep  the  ewe 
quiet  till  fully  recovered. 

For  Garget,  or  Caked  Bag. 

Keep  the  bag  thoroughly  drained  of  milk,  for  which  purpose 
the  lamb  is  the  most  efficient.  If  it  is  lost,  another  may  be 
temporarily  substituted.  Purge  freely  with  Epsom  salts,  and 
wash  the  udder  repeatedly  with  very  warm  water.  If  matter 
forms,  it  should  be  opened  with  the  lancet. 

Bleeding. 

"Nothing  tends  so  much  to  the  reco\v..y  of  an  animal  from 
a  disease  in  which  bleeding  is  required,  as  the  rapid  flow  of 
the  blood  from  a  large  orifice.  Little  im^^ressioii  can  be  made 
on  an  acute  disease  by  the  slow  removal  of  even  a  large 
quantity  of  blood,  as  the  organs  have  time  to  accommodate 
themselves  to  the  loss,  which  might,  for  any  good  it  will  do, 
as  well  be  dispensed  Avith.  Either  bleed  rapidly,  or  not  at  all. 
The  nearer  the  commeii'^ement  of  an  ailment,  in  which  you  em- 


BLEEDING.  137 

ploy  bleeding,  the  operation  is  resorted  to,  the  gi eater  the 
chance  of  its  doing  good. 

Bleeding  by  nicking  the  under  surface  of  the  tail,  does  veiy 
well,  where  no  great  deal  of  blood  is  required,  but  it  is  not  to 
be  thought  of  if  the  veins  of  the  face  or  neck  can  possibly  be 
opened.  These  are  to  be  taken  in  preference  to  a  vein  on  the 
leg,  as  they  are  much  more  readily  got  at.  The  facial  vein 
commences  by  small  branches  on  the  side  of  the  face,  and  runs 
downwards  and  backwards  to  the  base  of  the  jaw,  where  it 
may  be  felt  within  two  inches  of  the  angle,  or  opposite  the 
middle  grinding  tooth.  It  is  here  that  the  orifice  must  be 
made  :  the  thumb  of  the  left  hand  being  held  against  the  vein, 
so  as  to  prevent  the  flow  of  blood  towards  the  heart,  will  make 
it  rise. 

Some  prefer  opening  the  jugular  vein,  which  commences 
behind  the  eye  and  runs  down  the  side  of  the  neck.  T^his 
vessel  is,  however,  more  difficult  to  open  than  the  former,  be- 
ing better  covered  with  wool,  and  not  so  easily  exposed  or 
made  to  swell.  Stringing  is  the  mode  commonly  resorted  to 
for  this  end ;  that  is  to  say,  a  cord  is  drawn  tightly  round  the 
neck  close  to  the  shoulder,  so  as  to  stop  the  circulation  through 
the  vein,  and  render  it  perceptible  to  the  finger. 

A  lancet  is  the  instrument  generally  used  in  bleeding,  though 
a  well-pointed  penknife  will  do  at  a  pinch.  The  opening  must 
always  be  made  obliquely;  1but  before  attempting  this,  the 
animal  must  be  secured,  by  placing  it  between  the  operator's 
legs,  with  its  croup  against  a  wall.  The  selected  vein  is  then 
fixed  by  the  fingers  of  the  operator's  left  hand,  so  as  to  pre- 
vent its  rolling  or  shpping  before  the  lancet.  Ha\dng  fairly 
entered  the  vein,  the  point  of  the  instrument  must  be  elevated 
at  the  same  time  that  it  is  pushed  a  little  forward,  by  which 
motion  it  will  be  lifted  from  or  cut  its  way  out  of  the  vein. 

A  2^Tescrihed  quantity  of  blood  should  never  he  drawn,  for  the 
simple  reason  that  this  can  never  be  precisely  stated.  If  the 
symptoms'are  urgent,  as  in  all  hkelihood  they  will  be,  your  best 
plan  is  not  to  stop  the  flow  of  blood  till  the  animal  fall  or  is 
about  to  fall.  When  this  occurs,  rim  a  pin  through  the  edges 
of  the  orifice,  and  finish  by  twisting  round  it  a  lock  of  wool." — 
{Blacklock?) 

Large  cuts  are  healed 

By  first  sewing  and  then  covering  with  salve.  Smaller 
ones  may  be  secured  with  an  adhes* ve  plaster  or  bandage. 

1 2* 


138  DOMESTIC    ANIMALS. 

To  protect  lambs  from  wolves  and  foxes, 

Smeai  tlie  neck  plentifully  with  a  mixture  of  tar  and  sul- 
phur. Bells  are  also  said  to  guard  the  flock,  as  both  are  ex- 
cessively wary,  and  have  a  great  dislike  to  any  thing  artificial. 
Large  dogs  will  keep  fhem  at  bay.  A  better  remedy  is  to 
kill  the  marauders,  which  may  be  done  by  inserting  strychnine 
in  fresh  meat  and  leaving  it  in  their  haunts. 


CHAPTER  V 


THE  HORSE. 


In  nearly  all  ages  and  countries,  the  horse  has  been  the 
devoted  servant,  and  the  object  of  the  pride  and  affection  of 
man.  Among  the  semi-civilized  Tartars  of  Middle  and  North- 
ern Asia ;  the  aborigines  of  our  remote  Western  prairies, 
reaching  even  beyond  the  Rocky  Mountains,  and  many  other 
rude  nations,  his  flesh  is  used  for  food.  Most  of  the  tribes 
among  the  former  use  the  milk  for  domestic  purposes,  and 
especially  when  fermented  and  changed  to  an  unpleasantly 
sour  and  intoxicating  beverage.  '  But  throughout  the  civilized 
world,  with  some  slight  exceptions,  the  horse  is  useful  only 
for  his  labor.  For  this  purpose  he  is  pre-eminently  fitted  by 
his  compact,  closely-knit  frame ;  liis  sinewy,  muscular  limbs ; 
his  easy,  rapid  stride  ;  his  general  form,  and  entire  structure 
and  habits. 

He  is  found  in  his  wild  condition  in  Central  Asia,  Siberia, 
and  the  interior  of  Africa  ;  and  for  300  years  he  has  been 
turned  loose  to  follow  his  native  instincts  on  the  illimitable 
pampas  of  South  America,  and  the  wide-spread  prairies  of 
Mexico  and  Cahfornia,  In  all  these  regions  he  closely  resem- 
bles the  medium  varieties  of  the  domesticated  horse ;  but  as 
the  natural  result  of  his  freedom,  he  possesses  more  fire  and 
spirit  than  any  other,  except  the  blood-horse. 

Arabia  is  generally  claimed  as  the  original  native  locality  of 
the  horse,  and  as  the  only  source  frcm  which  he  is  to  be  de- 
rived in  the  requisite  perfection  for  the  highest  improvement 
of  the  race.  But  Strabo,  who  wrote  more  than  1,800  years 
ago,  asserts  that  the  horse  did  not  then  flourish  in  Arabia,  and 
ii  was  not  till  some  centuries  later  that  h3  attained  any  de- 


THE  HORSE.  139 

cided  superiority  there.  Great  attention,  however,  has  been 
paid  in  that  country,  since  the  era  of  Mahomet,  to  breeding  a 
hght,  agile,  and  enduring  frame;  intelhgence  and  tractability 
of  character ;  and  the  perpetuation  of  these  quahties  by  the 
most  scrupulous  regard  for  the  purity  of  blood. 

This  is  equally  true  of  the  Barb  or  pure-bred  horse  of  Mo- 
rocco, and  those  of  the  northern  coast  of  Africa,  in  Egypt, 
among  the  Turks,  and  indeed  wherever  the  followers  of  the 
Prophet  are  to  be  found.  It  is  unquestionable,  that  the  influ- 
ence of  the  Eastern  blood  among  the  choicest  animals  of  mod- 
ern Europe,  has  been  followed  by  great  improvements  in  racing 
stock.  Yet  it  is  equally  certain,  that  the  race-horse,  both  of 
England  and  the  United  States,  has  accomplished  what  has 
never  been  demonstrated  as  within  the  ability  of  their  progen- 
itors ;  and  on  repeated  trials  with  the  Eastern  horses,  he  has 
■  shown  himself  confessedly  their  superior  in  speed,  strength, 
and  endurance. 

In  1825,  two  English  horses  ran  against  the  two  fleetest 
Cossacks  which  could  be  found  throughout  the  entire  region 
of  their  best  blood,  and  in  a  continued  race  of  47  miles,  the 
European  took  the  stakes  ;  Sharper,  the  most  successful,  per- 
forming the  distance  in  2  hours  and  48  minutes.  About  the 
same  time,  Recruit,  an  English  horse  of  moderate  reputation, 
easily  beat  Pyramus,  the  best  Arabian  on  the  Bengal  side  of 
India. 

The  Leeds,  the  Darley,  and  the  Godolphin  Arabian ;  the 
Lister  and  D'Arcey's  White  Turk,  and  other  noted  Eastern 
horses,  would  not  compare  in  performance  with  many  of  their 
descendants.  But  these,  with  some  other  choice  Arabians,  on 
the  best  mares,  and  with  every  advantage  for  obtaining  celeb- 
rity, have  succeeded  in  establishing  a  fame  as  just  as  it  has 
been  enduring.  Yet  it  must  at  the  same  time  be  remembered, 
that  of  the  innumerable  other  pure-bred  horses  which  have 
been  tried  in  Europe,  a  few  only  have  rescued  their  names 
from  oblivion. 

The  experience  of  Eastern  blood  in  this  country,  in  compar- 
ison with  the  best  English,  is  decidedly  in  favor  of  the  latter. 
We  have  had  one  horse  of  unsurpassed  excellence,  which  a 
fortunate  accident  threw  upon  our  shores  a  short  time  previous 
to  1770.  This  was  the  white  Barb  Ranger,  which  was  pre- 
sented by  the  Emperor  of  Morocco,  as  the  choice  of  his  stud, 
to  an  EngUsh  naval  officer  for  some  distinguished  service.  On 
his  route  homeward,  the  animal  was  set  on  shore  for  exercise 
at  an  intermec'iate  port,  where  in  his  gambols  lie  broke  three 


140  DOMESTIC    ANIMALS. 

of  his  legs,  and  thinking  him  worthless,  his  owner  gave  him  to 
the  commander  of  a  New  England  merchantman,  then  present. 
He  was  readily  accepted,  and  placed  in  slings  on  board  of  his 
vessel,  and  recovered. 

Tliis  animal  stood  for  many  years,  in  the  eastern  part  of 
Connecticut ;  and  on  their  good  mares,  produced  a  numerous 
progeny  of  unrivalled  cavalry  horses,  which  rendered  invalu- 
able services  in  the  troop  commanded  by  that  consummate 
partisan,  Captain  (afterwards  General)  Lee,  of  the  Revolution. 
It  is  said  the  favorite  white  field-horse  of  General  Washington 
was  of  the  same  stock.  He  was  afterwards  sold  to  Captain 
Lindsey,  as  a  special  favor,  and  taken  to  Virginia,  where  he 
produced  some  good  racers. 

Bussorah,  a  small  sorrel  horse,  brought  into  this  country  in 
1819,  from  the  head  of  the  Persian  Gulf,  got  many  choice 
roadsters,  though  no  racers  of  celebrity. 

The  Narraganset  pacers,  a  race  belonging  to  our  Northerp 
states,  but  for  many  years  almost  extinct,  possessed  for  a  long 
time  an  unrivalled  reputation  for  spirit,  endurance,  and  easy 
rapid  motion  under  the  saddle.  They  are  said  to  have  origi- 
nated from  a  Spanish  horse,  man}^  of  which  are  pure  descend- 
ants of  the  Barb. 

As  an  offset  to  these  isolated  examples  of  success  in  this 
country,  we  have  numerous  instances  of  the  importation  of  the 
best  Orientals,  which  have  been  extensively  used  on  some  of 
our  superior  mares,  without  any  marked  effect.  We  shall  refer 
to  three  prominent  importations  only. 

The  first  consisted  of  two  clioice  Arabians,  or  Barbs,  selected 
m  Tunis  by  General  Eaton,  and  sent  to  his  estate  in  Massachu- 
setts. The  second  was  a  present  of  four  choice  Barbs,  from 
the  Emperor  of  Morocco  to  our  government,  in  1830-;  and  the 
third  consisted  of  two  Arabians,  sent  by  the  Imaum  of  Mus- 
cat, near  the  Persian  Gulf,  to  our  government  in  1840.  These 
were  all  claimed  to  be,  and  no  doubt  were,  of  the  pure  Koch- 
lani,  the  unadulterated  fine  royal ;  yet  none  have  earned  any 
distinguished  reputation,  either  by  their  own  performances  or 
those  of  their  descendants. 

It  is  to  England  we  are  mainly  indebted  for  the  great  im- 
provement in  our  blood,  road,  and  farm  horses.  A  numerous 
race  of  fine  horses  was  reared  on  that  island,  long  previous  to 
its  authentic  history  ;  for,  in  his  first  invasion  Julius  Caesar 
took  many  of  them  to  Rome,  where  they  immediately  became 
great  favorites,  although  she  had  already  plundered  every 
I'agion  of  some  of  their  best  breeds. 


THE    HORSE.  141 

What  might  have  b(3en  the  particular  merit  of  .he  Enghsh 
horse  at  the  time  of  the  Norman  invasion,  is  no  knc»wn,  but 
it  is  certain  that  tlie  Saxon  cavahy  under  Harold  were  speed- 
ily overpowered  by  William,  at  the  battle  of  Hastings,  which 
at  once  secured  the  throni  to  the  Conqueror.  History  first 
informs  us  of  the  improvement  of  British  horses,  by  importa- 
tions from  abroad  during  this  reign,  which  consisted  of  a  num- 
ber of  Spanish  stalhons.  These  were  supposed  to  be  strongly 
imbued  with  the  Arabian  blood,  which  had  been  brought  over 
to  that  country  by  the  Moors,  who  had  founded  the  Saracenic 
empire  in  the  Peninsula,  three  centuries  before.  More  than  a 
century  later,  John  made  some  importations  from  Flanders,  to 
give  weight  and  substance  to  their  draught  and  cavalry  horses. 
The  improvement  of  their  various  breeds  was  afterwards  pur- 
sued, with  more  or  less  judgment  and  zeal,  by  other  British 
monarchs,  till  they  reached  their  highest  excellence  during  the 
middle  of  the  last  century. 

Flying  Childers,  Eclipse,  Highflyer,  and  others  on  the  course, 
have  probably  exceeded  in  speed  any  thing  ever  before  accom- 
plished ;  while  the  draught-horse,  the  roadster,  the  hackney, 
the  cavalry-horse,  and  the  hunter,  attained  a  merit  at  that  time 
which  some  judicious  authorities  claim  has  not  been  since  in- 
creased. It  is  even  asserted,  that  some  of  the  more  serviceable 
breeds  have  been  seriously  injured  by  too  great  an  infusion  of 
the  blood ;  while  the  almost  universal  absence  of  long  heats 
on  the  turf  has  tended  to  the  improvement  ^f  speed  rather 
than  bottom  in  the  race-horse. 

The  improvement  of  the  horse  in  this  country  has  not  been 
a  matter  of  record  or  history,  till  within  a  comparatively  recent 
period.  But  it  has  silently,  and  with  no  little  rapidity,  been 
going  forward  for  more  than  a  century,  till  we  have  obtained 
a  race  of  animals,  throughout  the  Eastern  and  Middle  states  at 
least,  which  probably  equal  those  of  any  other  country  for 
adaptedness  to  draught,  the  road,  and  the  saddle.  This  im- 
provement has  been  nfainly  brought  about  by  the  importation 
of  some  of  the  hest  and  stoutest  of  the  English  blood.  In  breed- 
ing from  these  for  purposes  of  utihty,  particular  ri^ference  has 
been  paid  to  strength,  enduringn^ss,  and  speed.  No  horses 
surpass  our  best  four-mile  bloods  ;  none  equal  our  trotters ; 
and  though  much  inequality  exists  in  those  bred  for  \  arious 
other  uses,  yet  for  profitable  service,  it  is  believed,  no  equal 
number  of  animals  elsewhere  can  exceed  those  in  the  region 
above  indicated. 

It  would  be  a  superfluous  task  to  attempt  enumerating  all 


142  DOMESTIC    ANIMALS. 

the  imported  horses  that  have  contributed  to  this  .mproA-^ement, 
Each  good  animal  has  done  something.  But  among  the  ear- 
lier horses  Avhich  may  he  named  with  distinction,  as  ha-ving 
effected  much  for  our  useful  beasts,  are  Lath,  Wild  air.  Slender, 
Sourkrout,  Tallyho,  Figure,  Bay  Richmond,  Expedition,  Baro- 
net, and  a  host  of  others. 

Pre-eminent  among  these,  was  imported  Messenger.  He 
was  foaled  in  1780,  imported  in  1788,  and  died  in  1808.  He 
stood  in  different  places  in  New  Jersey,  and  in  Dutchess, 
Westchester,  and  Queens  counties  in  New  York ;  and  upon 
the  marcs  derived  f lom  the  foregoing  and  other  good  horses, 
he  got  a  numerous  progeny  of  illustrious  descendants.  Of 
these  we  may  name  those  capital  stallions,  Potomac,  Hamlin- 
tonian,  Bay  Figure,  Engineer,  Mambiino,  Tippoo  Saib,  Colum- 
bus, Gunn's,  and  Bushe's  Messenger,  and  many  others,  which 
were  extensively  disseminated  over  the  Northern  and  Middle 
states ;  and  he  has  the  credit  of  imparting  a  large  share  of  his 
merits  to  that  nonpareil  of  horses,  his  grandson,  American 
Echpse.  His  posterity  were  so  numerous  and  widely  spread, 
that  it  may  be  safely  asserted,  that  of  the  best  horses  bred  in 
the  above  states,  scarcely  one  can  now  be  found  w^hich  does 
not  trace  one  or  more  crosses  to  this  distinguished  sire.  His 
success  in  producing  roadsters,  besides  his  blood  qualities  of 
speed  and  endurance,  consisted  in  his  great  strength,  and  the 
peculiar  formation  of  his  lim^bs,  large  forehand  and  deep  quar- 
ters, in  which  he  excelled  any  other  of  the  imported  bloods. 

As  an  illustration  of  what  may  be  accomplished  by  judi- 
cious breeding  with  the  present  materials  in  our  hands,  we 
mention  one  family  of  the  American  roadster,  which  is  strong- 
ly tinctured  with  blood,  and  which  has  attained  an  enviable 
notoriety  among  the  choicest  of  the  Northern  horses.  They 
are  derived  from  the  Morgan  horse  of  Vermont,  that  was 
foaled  in  Springfield,  Mass.,  in  1793.  He  was  got  by  True 
Britton,  supposed  to  have  been  bred  by  Gen.  Delancey  of 
New  York,  and  got  by  imported  Wildair,  (or  one  of  his  sons,) 
a  horse  of  such  distinguished  excellence,  as  to  have  been  re- 
exported to  England,  for  the  benefit  of  his  stock. 

The  Morgan  horse  stood  in  Vermont  from  1795  till  his 
deatl ,  at  an  advanced  age.  From  him  and  the  choice  mares 
of  Vjrmont,  descended  many  excellent  colts;  and  his  merits 
w^ere  inherited  in  an  eminent  degree  by  three  of  his  sons, 
which  stood  in  the  same  state  and  continued  the  career  of  im- 
provement commenced  by  the  sire.  The  result  has  been  the 
production  of  a  family  of  roadsters,  of  much  similarity  of  ap- 


THE    HORSE.  143 

pearance*  and  iinifonnily  of  character,  unsurpassed  by  any 
others  for  serviceable  quahties. 

They  are  of  medium  size,  from  j.3i  to  15  hands  high; 
with  a  Avell-formed  head  and  neck  ;  high  v/ithers  ;  deep  chest; 
round  body ;  short  back ;  long  quarters ;  broad  flat  legs ; 
moderately  small  feet ;  long  wavy  mane  and  tail ;  presenting 
altogether  the  beau  ideal  of  the  road  horse.  They  are  spirit- 
ed, docile,  hardy,  and  easily  kept.  They  have  an  easy,  rapid 
trot,  and  glide  along  with  a  good  load,  without  clatter  or 
apparent  effort,  at  the  rate  of  ten  or  twelve  miles  an  hour. 

This  family  of  horses  has  not  of  course  been  bred  long 
enough  within  themselves,  to  have  attained  to  the  eminence 
of  a  distinct  breed.  The  j  are  mentioned,  merely  as  a  type  of 
what  the  serviceable  roadster  ought  to  be,  and  what  he  may 
become  by  the  use  of  the  proper  instruments  for  breeding. 
And  if  the  materials  already  in  our  hands  are  intelligently 
and  perseveringly  used,  we  can  produce  all  we  require  of 
horse-flesh. 

Besides  our  imsurpassed  blood-horses,  we  have  others  de- 
rived from  various  sources,  and  especially  from  the  diff'erent 
Enghsh  breeds,  all  of  which  are  variously  compounded,  with 
the  first  and  with  each  other.  On  our  northeastern  frontier, 
the  Canadian  prevails,  a  bastard  but  not  degenerate  race, 
made  up  of  the  French  Norman  and  the  English  or  American, 
At  the  extreme  South  and  West,  we  have  the  horse  of  Spanish 
origin,  obtained  in  his  domestic  state  in  Florida  and  Louisiana ; 
and  from  another  branch  of  the  Spanish,  are  descended  the 
wild  horses  of  Mexico  and  the  more  northern  prairies.  These 
are  diversified  in  character,  and  generally  possess  medium 
size  and  merit. 

The  Conestoga,  a  heavy  roadster,  is  principally  reared  in 
Pennsylvania,  and  is  used  for  the  team  and  truck.  He  is 
rin  amalgamation  of  several  breeds,  but  probably  owes  a 
share  of  his  character  to  the  Flemish  horse,  for  which  there 
was  a  decided  partiality  among  the  numerous  German  emi- 
grants of  that  state. 

Several  varieties  of  ponies  are  to  be  found  in  diff'erent  sec- 
tions, but  principally  among  the  French,  the  half-breed,  and 
the  Indians  upon  the  frontiers,  who  have  bred  a  stunted  race 
from  the  Canadian  or  wild-horse,  and   such  others  as  could 


*  Many  of  the  Morgan  horses  have  the  steep  rump  and  heavy  breast  and  neck, 
which  indicate  a  Norman  cross  on  the  side  of  their  dams.  These  have  been 
largely  imparted  through  the  French  horse  in  the  adjoining  Canadian  settle- 
aient-s  ;  but  none  of  these  are  said  to  have  characterized  the  founder  of  the  rac3. 


144 


DOMESTIC    ANIMALS. 


survive  the  hard  usage  and  scanty  winter  food  aflforded  by 
nature  and  their  rude  husbandry.  Many  of  these  have  con- 
siderable beauty  and  symmetry,  and  are  fleet,  hardy,  and 
spirited. 

Fig.  27. 


Normau  Horse. 


The  modern  jSforman,  or  mixture  of  the  old  French  Normrin 
draught-horse,  (heavy-framed,  big-hmbed,  but  stout  and 
hardy,)  and  the  Andalusian,  a  descendant  of  the  Moorish 
barbs,  has  been  introduced  vvithin  a  few  years,  and  will  un- 
ques-tionably  become  a  ver}^  popular  horse  for  many  purposes. 
He  exhibits  the  qualities  of  both  ancestry  in  the  proper  pro- 
portions for  farm  service.     He  has  a  thick  head ;  lively,  prici 


THE    HORSE.  145 

Bars  ;  short,  heavy  neck ;  large  breast  and  shoulders ;  strong 
limbs  ;  well-knit  back ;  large  quarters,  with  much  wavy  mane, 
tail,  and  fetlock.  Like  his  French  progenitor,  he  frequently 
stands  low  in  the  withers,  which  enables  him  to  throw  great 
weight  into  the  collar ;  and  the  diminished,  flattened  leg,  the 
wind  and  game  derived  from  his  Moorish  blood,  give  him 
much  of  the  capacity  and  endurance  of  the  thorough-bred. 

The  English  cart-horse  has  for  a  long  time  made  up  some  of 
the  best,  heavy  dray-horses  in  the  country,  and  late  importa- 
tions have  refreshed  the  breed  with  additional  choice  speci- 
mens. The  Cleveland  hay  has  been  introduced  of  late,  and 
promises  good  carriage-horses  from  our  well-spread,  sizeable 
mares.  The  Norfolk  trotter  Belfounder  was  imported  many 
years  since,  and  with  our  high-bred  mares,  has  produced  many 
choice  roadsters  and  trotters. 

The  remainder  of  our  horse-flesh  deserving  of  any  notice,  is 
chiefly  composed  of  such  as  are  superior  in  point  of  blood. 
The  improvement  in  the  Am.erican  horse,  from  this  source,  is 
conspicuous  and  decided.  Judicious  breeders  still  look  for 
qualities  in  the  descendants,  which  they  sought  for  in  their 
imported  sires,  and  the  infusion  of  some  of  the  stoutest  of  the 
blood  is  rapidly  gaining  an  ascendency  in  the  general  stock. 
Our  intelligent  agriculturists  should  look  to  this  subject  closely, 
and  not  permit  this  system  to  proceed  to  an  extent  that  may 
be  prejudicial  to  their  value  as  draught-horses,  as  has  be-en 
done  in  some  portions  of  England  and  our  Southern  states. 

There  is  no  danger  from  excess  of  blood,  if  it  be  of  the  right 
kind  ;  but  it  is  seldom  found  combining  that  fulness  and  stout- 
ness, and  that  docility  and  tractableness  of  disposition,  which 
are  essential  to  the  gig-horse  or  the  horse  of  all  work.  Yorke 
says  truly,  that  "the  road -horse  may  possess  different  degrees 
of  blood,  according  to  the  nature  of  the  country  and  the  work 
required  of  him.  [He  might  have  added  with  propriety,  and 
according  to  the  character  of  the  hlood^  His  legs  will  be  too 
slender ;  his  feet  too  small ;  his  stride  too  long,  and  he  will 
rarely  be  able  to  trot.  Three  parts,  or  half,  and  for  the  horse 
of  all  work,  even  less  than  that,  will  make  a  good  and  useful 
animal."  For  the  saddle  only,  the  high-bred,  if  not  disposed 
to  be  vicious,  is  never  objectionable  to  an  enterprising  and 
accomplished  rider.  His  long  elastic  pasterns,  giving  easy, 
flexible  motions ;  his  quick  and  almost  electrical  obedience 
when  under  thorough  discipline  ;  his  habitual  canter  and  high 
spirit,  always  commend  him  for  this  purpose. 

13 


146 


DOMESTIC     \NIMALS. 

Fig.  28. 


Points  of  a  Horse. 


1.  Muzzle —2.  Race— 3.  Forehead.— 4.  Poll.— 5.  Crest.— 6.  Withers.— 7.  Back.— 
8.  Loins.— 9.  Hip.— 10.  Croup.— 11.  Dock.— 12.  Quarter.— 13.  Thigh,  or  Gaskin.— 
14.  Ham-string.— 15.  Point  of  the  Hock.— 16.  Cannon.— 17.  Fetlock.— 18.  Large 
Pastern.— 19.  Small  Pastern  —20.  Hoof.— 21.  Coronet.— 22.  Ham,  or  Hock.— 23. 
Sheath.— 24.  Flank.— 25.  Girth.— 25.  Elbow.- 27.  Heel.— 28.  Hoof.— 29.  Small  Pas- 
tern.—30.  Large  Pastern.— 31.  Fetlock.— 32.  Cannon.— 33.  Knee.— 34.  Arm.- 35. 
Breast,  or  Bosom.— 36.  Point  of  the  Shoulder.— 37.  Wmdpipe.- 38.  Gullet.— 39. 
JowL 

Some  of  the  prominent  external  points  of  a  fine  Saddle  or  Gig 

Horse, 

Are,  a  moderately  small  head,  free  from  fleshiness ;  fine 
muzzle  and  expansive  nostrils ;  broad  at  the  throat  and  wide 
between  the  eyes,  which  denotes  intelligC'nce  and  courage  ;  a 
dished  face  indicates  high  breeding,  and  sometimes  viciousness  ; 
a  convex  or  Roman  nose  frequently  betokens  the  reverse  ;  the 
ears  rather  long,  yet  so  finely  formed  as  to  appear  small,  and 
playing  quickly  like  those  of  a  deer ;  the  eyes  clear,  full,  and 
confident,  with  a  steady  forward  look.  Glancing  them  back- 
ward or  askance  with  a  sinister  expression,  and  with  none  or 
only  a  slight  movement  of  the  head,  is  indicative  of  a  mis- 
chievous temper. 

The  neck  should  be  handsomely  arched,  and  fine  at  the 
junction  with  the  head,  while  the  lower  extremity  must  be 
full  and  muscular,  and  well  expanded  at  the  breast  and  shoul- 
ders. The  latter  ought  to  be  high  and  run  well  buck ;  the 
withers  strong,  firmly  knit,  and  smooth  ;  t!ie  breast  neither  too 


THE    HORSE.  H? 

prominent  nor  retreating,  too  wide  nor  too  nai  row,  and  supported 
by  a  pair  of  straight  fore-legs,  standing  well  apart.  The  chest 
should  be  deep,  and  the  girth  large  ;  the  body  full,  and  not 
drawn  up  too  much  in  the  flank  ;  the  back  short,  and  the  hips 
gathered  well  towards  the  withers ;  the  loins  wide  and  rising 
above  the  spine  ;  the  ribs  spi  inging  nearly  at  right  angles  from 
the  back,  givmg  roundness  to  the  body.  The  hips  ought  to 
be  long  to  the  root  of  the  tail,  and  the  latter  may  approach  to 
near  the  line  of  the  back,  which  is  a  mark  of  good  breeding. 

Both  the  thigh  and  hock  should  be  large  and  muscular  ; 
and  between  the  hock  or  knee  and  pastern,  the  legs  should  bo 
broad,  flat,  and  short ;  the  hind  legs  properly  bent,  and  all 
well  placed  under  the  body  ;  the  pasterns  of  moderate  length, 
and  standing  slightly  oblique  ;  the  hoof  hard,  smooth,  round 
before,  and  wide  at  the  heel ;  the  frog  large  and  sound  ;  and 
the  sole  firm  and  concave.  A  v/hite  hoof  is  generally  tender, 
easy  to  fracture  and  to  lame,  and  difficult  to  hold  a  shoe. 

The  draught-horse  ought  to  differ  from  the  foregoing,  in  pos- 
sessing a  heavier  and  shorter  neck  ;  a  wider  and  stouter  breast, 
and  low  withers,  so  as  to  throw  the  utmost  weight  into  the 
collar  ;  a  heavier  body  and  quarters ;  larger  legs  and  feet ; 
and  more  upright  shoulders  and  pasterns. 

Considerations  which  affect  the  Value  of  the  Horse. 

The  color  is  not  material,  provided  it  be  not  pied  or  mealy. 
Ko  better  color  for  horses  can  be  found  than  the  dark  bay  or 
brown,  with  black  mane,  tail,  and  legs.  But  most  of  the  other 
colors  are  frequently  found  with  the  best  horses. 

Hard-mouthed  horses,  when  accompanied  v^^ith  great  spirit, 
are  objectionable,  as  they  require  peculiar  bitting  and  the 
utmost  vigilance. 

The  paces  and  action  of  a  horse  are  important,  for  if  good, 
they  give  a  much  greater  capacity  for  performance.  Some 
of  these  depend  on  form  and  structure,  and  are  unchangeable  ; 
others  are  the  result  of  breaking.  All  horses  should  be 
taught  to  walk  fast,  as  it  is  their  easiest  and  most  economical 
pace,  and  it  will  help  them  over  a  great  deal  of  ground  in  a 
day,  even  with  a  heavy  load,  and  with  comparatively  little 
efi:ort.  A  horse  that  steps  short  and  digs  his  toes  into  the 
ground,  is  worthless  as  a  traveller,  and  suited  only  to  a  ferry- 
boat or  bark-mill. 

It  is  important  that  a  horse  be  good-tempered.  If  inclined 
to  viciousness,  he  should  be  gently  yet  firmly  managed  when  it 


i48  DOMESTI;      ANIMALS. 

is  first  apparent.  A  resort  to  great  severity  will  be  justified, 
if  necessary  to  conquer  him ;  for  if  once  allowed  to  become  a 
habit,  it  will  be  diflBcult  to  cure  him.  Grooms  and  mischievous 
stable-boys,  frequently  do  much  injury  by  their  idle  tricks 
with  horses ;  and  when  detected,  they  should  be  discharged 
at  once. 

Some  horses  are  nervous,  easily  excited,  and  start  at  every 
unusual  noise  or  object.  Others  are  restive  and  fretful,  and 
ever  anxious  to  be  on  the  move.  Kindness,  and  firm,  yet  mild 
treatment,  by  which  their  motions  and  will  are  at  all  tiines 
controlled,  and  their  confidence  secured,  are  the  only  reme- 
dies. 

Others  are  inclined  to  sluggishness.  These  should  have 
stimulating  food,  and  never  be  overloaded  or  overworked,  and 
then  kept  well  to  their  paces.  Whatever  they  are  capable  of 
performing,  can  be  got  from  them  in  this  wa}^  only.  Habit  has 
great  influence  with  animals,  as  with  man ;  and  when  within 
the  compass  of  his  ability,  he  may  be  habituated  to  any  rea- 
sonable physical  exertion. 

Breeding. 

Agreeably  to  the  general  principles  before  enumerated,  such 
animals  should  be  selected,  as  most  eminently  possess  those 
points  which  it  is  desired  to  propagate,  and  these,  they  should 
not  only  exhibit  in  themselves,  but  should  inherit  as  far  as 
possible,  from  a  long  line  of  ancestry.  For  the  perpetuation 
of  particular  points  in  progeny,  it  would  be  safer  to  rely  on 
the  latter  quality  than  the  former. 

The  selection  of  a  mare,  relatively  larger  than  the  horse,  is 
an  important  rule  in  breeding,  and  it  is  believed  that  much  of 
the  success  of  Arabian  and  other  Eastern  horses  as  stock- 
getters,  has  resulted  from  the  application  of  this  principle. 
They  possess  valuable  traits,  but  condensed  within  too  small  a 
compass.  When  sueh  an  animal  is  put  to  a  well-bred,  larger 
mare,  the  foetus  has  abundance  of  room  and  nourishment  to 
develop  and  perfect  the  circumscribed  outlines  of  the  male 
parent,  and  acquire  for  itself  increased  volume  and  character. 

The  horse  ought  not  to  be  less  than  four  or  five,  and  the 
mare  one  year  older,  before  being  put  to  breeding.  It  would 
be  still  better  to  defer  it  for  two  or  three  years,  or  till  the 
frame  is  fully  matm-ed. 


MANAGEMENT  OF  THE  COLT — ^CASTRATING.  149 

The  Gestation  of  the  Marc 

Sometimes  varies  from  44  to  56  weeks,  but  she  usually 
goes  with  young  from  47  to  50 ;  and  it  is  advisable  she  should 
take  the  horse  at  a  time  which  will  ensure  the  foahng  when 
the  weather  is  settled,  and  there  is  a  fresh  growth  of  grass. 
She  will  be  the  better  for  light  working  till  near  the  time  of 
foahng,  if  well,  but  not  too  abundantly  fed.  In  a  few  days 
after  this,  she  may  resume  moderate  labor ;  and  if  not  in  ^e 
way  or  troublesome,  the  foal  may  run  with  her ;  but  if  she  is 
exposed  to  heating,  it  should  be  confined  till  she  cools,  as 
suckling  then  is  decidedly  injurious  to  it. 

The  mare  is  in  danger  of  slinking  her  foal  from  blows  and 
over-exertion,  the  use  of  smutty  grain,  foul  hay,  or  offensive 
objects  or  smell ;  and  when  this  has  once  occurred,  which 
happens  usually  in  the  fourth  or  fifth  month,  she  should  after- 
wards be  generously  fed  at  that  period,  and  only  moderately 
worked,  to  prevent  a  recurrence  of  the  casualty.  When  liable 
to  slinking,  the  mare  should  be  removed  from  others  in  foal, 
lest  a  peculiar  sympathy  should  excite  an  epidemic. 

The  Elare  comes  in  Heat 

From  nine  to  eleven  days  after  foaling,  when  she  should  be 
put  to  the  horse,  if  it  be  desirable  to  have  a  colt  the  following 
season.     She  comes  round  at  intervals  of  about  nine  days. 

Management  of  the  Colt. 

The  colt  may  be  weaned  when  five  to  seven  months  old ; 
and  preparatory  to  this,  Avhile  with  the  mare,  may  be  taught 
to  feed  on  fine  hay,  meal,  or  oats.  When  taken  away,  he 
should  be  confined  beyond  a  hearing  distance  of  the  dam,  and 
plentifully  supplied  with  rowen  or  aftermath  hay,  crushed  oats, 
or  wheat  shorts.  It  is  economy  to  provide  a  warm  shelter 
through  the  inclement  season  for  \11  animals,  and  especially  for 
colts,  which,  with  all  other  young,  should  have  an  abundance 
of  nutritious  food.  They  will  thus  grow  evenly  and  rapidly, 
and  attain  a  size  and  stamina  at  two  years  Did,  they  would  not 
otherwise  have  acquired  at  three. 

Castrating. 

The  colt  should  be  altered  at  about  one  year,  but  if  thin  in 
the  neck  and  light  before,  the  operation  may  be  deferred  to 
such  time  as  the  requisite  development  is  secured.     Few  of 

13* 


150  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS. 

the  Frencli  diligence  and  farm  horses,  and  scarcely  any  of  the 
Oriental,  are  ever  castrated.  They  are  thought  to  be  more 
hardy  and  enduring ;  but  the  slight  advantage  they  may 
possibly  possess  in  this  respect,  would  hardly  compensate  for 
the  trouble  and  inconvenience  too  frequently  arising  from  their 
management. 

The  operation  should  be  performed  late  in  the  spring  or 
early  in  autumn,  while  the  weather  is  mild.  If  in  high  cou- 
»Ixi,ion,  the  animal  must  first  be  bled  and  physicked.  If  large 
and  fractious,  he  must  be  cast.  Some  back  him  into  the  an- 
gle of  a  worm  fence,  where  he  is  firmly  held  by  the  liead  with 
a  bridle,  and  the  operator  accomplishes  the  object  without 
any  trouble  or  material  restiveness  from  the  animal  while 
standing.  The  sci-otum  should  be  opened  on  both  sides,  and 
the  testicles  cut,  or  rather  the  cord  scraped  off,  which  prevents 
much  bleeding.  The  wound  may  be  dressed  with  a  little 
lard ;  then  turn  him  loose  in  a  pasture  which  has  a  shelter 
from  sun,  wind,  or  rain.  Another  method  of  castrating  is  by 
torsion,  or  twisting. 

Docking 

Is  practised  by  many,  but  merely  to  gratify  an  absurd  and 
cruel  caprice,  without  a  single  advantage,  and  the  animal  is 
better  in  every  respect  with  the  tail  unmutilated.  If  done  at 
all,  it  should  be  when  young,  and  with  a  single  stroke  of  the 
knife,  or  chisel  and  mallet ;  and  if  the  weather  be  favorable, 
no  further  attention  is  necessarj^ 

NickiBg. 

This  inhuman  custom  is  now  getting  unfashionable,  and  we 
omit  any  description  of  it. 

Breaking. 

Wliile  feeding  in  the  stable,  the  colt  should  be  gently  treat- 
ed, and  accustomed  to  the  halter  and  bit,  which  prepares  him 
for  breaking.  If  permitted  to  ran  with  the  others  while  at 
work,  he  becomes  familiarized  to  it,  and  when  harnessed  by 
the  side  of  some  of  his  well-trained  mates,  he  seems  to  consider 
his  discipline  rather  a  privilege  than  a  task.  The  colt  may  be 
taken  in  hand  for  breaking  at  three  years  of  age,  and  thor- 
oughly broken  to  light  work  at  four,  but  should  not  be  put  to 
hard  service  till  six  or  eight.  A  due  regard  to  humanity  and 
Bound  judgment,  in  thus  limiting  the  burden  in  his  early  years, 


LONGEVITY    OF    THE    UORSE FEEDING.  151 

would  save  much  disease  and  suffering  to  the  animal,  and 
pi'ofit  to  the  owner,  by  his  unimpaired  strength  and  prolonged 
life.  The  annual  loss  from  neglecting  this  precaution  is  enor- 
mous, which  might  be  entirely  avoided  by  less  eagerness  to 
grasp  the  -substance,  while  as  yet  the  shadow  only  is  within 
reach.  ISIany  animals  are  thus  broken  down  at  twelve,  and 
are  in  their  dotage  at  fifteen,  Avhile  others  of  good  constitution,, 
if  well  treated,  perform  hard  service  till  thirty. 

Longevity  of  the  Horse. 

Mr.  Percival  mentions  one  that  died  at  62.  Mr.  Mauran,  of 
New  York,  has  a  fine  gig  and  saddle  horse,  now  in  his  45th 
year,  sound,  spirited,  and  plaj^ful  as  a  kitten.  He  is  of  a  dark 
brown,  with  a  tanned  nose.  We  never  yet  saw  a  horse  with 
a  buff"  or  bear  muzzle,  that  had  not  great  endurance. 

American  Eclipse  was  successfully  covering  mares  in  Ken- 
tucky at  the  age  of  32,  the  result  of  late  and  light  service  till 
his  sinews  became  fully  matured.  We  have  fi'equently  seen  a 
large,  compact,  flea-bitten  horse  at  work,  dragging  a  heavy 
load  in  a  single  cart,  which  was  formerly  used  as  one  of  Gov- 
'srnor  Maitland's  coach-horses,  and  though  upwards  of  30,  he 
was  apparently  as  sound  and  vigorous  as  an  overtasked  colt 
■of  seven  or  eight. 

Feeding. 

The  vigor  and  duration  of  the  horse  depend  much  on  proper 
feeding.  Like  the  cow  and  sheep,  he  may  be  made  to  subsist 
on  animal  food,  Ssh,  and  almost  every  species  of  nutritious 
vegetable.  But  his  natural  and  proper  aliment  is  the  grasses, 
grain,  and  roots.  In  the  middle  and  northern  sections  of  this 
country,  his  dry  forage  is  almost  invariably  good  meadow -hay, 
generally  timothy,  which  is  the  richest  of  the  cultivated  grasses. 
At  the  South,  this  is  often  supplied  by  the  blades  of  Indian 
corn.  But  in  all  the  states,  a  great  variety  of  the  grasses  and 
clover  are  used. 

When  put  to  hai'd  labor,  grain  ought  always  to  accompany 
hay  in  some  form.  Of  the  diflferent  kinds  of  grain,  oats  are 
peculiarly  the  horse's  food,  and  they  are  always  safe,  digesti- 
ble, and  nutritive.  Barley  is  the  best  substitute  for  it.  Wheat 
and  Indian  corn  are  sometimes  given,  but  both  are  unsuitable ; 
the  first  is  too  concentrated,  and.  the  last  too  heating.  They 
ought  to  be  sparingly  used,  and  only  when  ground  and  mixed 
with  chaff.     The  offal  of  wheat  is  never  objectionable. 


152  DOMESTIC    AN  AIA"  3. 

Grain  is  always  more  advantageously  fed  "when  ground  or 
crushed,  and  wet  some  time  previous  to  eating ;  and  it  is  still 
better  when  cooked.  On  both  sides  of  the  MediteiTanean,  in 
the  Barbary  States,  in  Spain,  France,  and  Italy,  much  of  the 
food  is  given  in  small  baked  cakes,  and  the  saving  in  this  way 
is  much  greater  than  the  expense  of  preparing  it. 

When  confined  to  dry  food,  roots  or  apples  fed  once  a  day  are 
always  beneficial.  They  keep  the  bowels  open,  the  appetite 
and  general  health  good,  and  contribute  largely  to  the  nutri- 
ment of  the  animal.  Carrots  are  the  best  of  the  roots,  as  besides 
giving  muscle  and  working  power,  they,  more  than  any  other, 
improve  the  wind  and  prevent  all  tendency  to  heaves.  They 
have  even  been  found  effectual  in  removing  an  obstinate  cough. 
By  many  of  the  keepers  of  Hvery  stables,  they  are  always 
used,  for  which  purpose  they  command  the  same  price  as  oats. 
Potatoes,  parsnips,  beets,  and  Swedes  turnips,  in  the  order 
mentioned,  are  next  to  be  preferred.  Potatoes  are  improved 
by  cooking. 

Mixtures  of  food  are  best,  as  of  cut  hay,  meal,  and  roots. 
Old  horses,  or  such  as  are  put  to  hard  labor,  will  do  much 
better  if  their  food  be  given  in  the  form  easiest  of  digestion. 
No  inconsiderable  part  of  the  vital  power  is  exhausted  by  the 
digestion  of  dry,  raw  food. 

Horses  ought  to  be  fed,  and  if  possible,  exercised  or  worked 
regularly,  but  never  on  a  full  stomach.  This  is  a  frequent 
cause  of  disease,  and  especially  of  broken  wind.  If  their  food 
is  given  at  the  proper  time,  and  the  horse  be  allowed  to  finish 
it  at  once,  without  expecting  more,  he  will  he  down  quietly 
and  digest  it.  This  will  be  much  more  refreshing  to  him, 
than  to  stand  at  the  rack  or  trough,  nibbling  continually  at  his 
hay  or  oats.  What  remains  after  he  has  done  feeding,  should 
be  at  once  withdrawn. 

They  should  have  water  in  summer  three  times,  and  in  win- 
ter twice  a  day.  Soft  or  running  water  is  much  the  best. 
While  working,  and  they  are  not  too  warm,  they  may  have  it 
as  often  as  they  desire.  Neither  should  they  be  fed  when 
heated,  as  the  stomach  is  then  fatigued  and  sHghtly  inflamed, 
and  is  not  prepared  for  digestion  till  the  animal  is  again  cool. 
Salt  should  always  be  within  reach,  and  we  have  found  an 
occasional  handful  of  clean  wood-ashes,  a  preventive  of  disease 
and  an  assistance  to  the  bowels  and  appetite. 


SKELETON  OF  A  HORSE 

Fiff.29. 


153 


Skeleton  of  a  Horse. 

A  The  Head.— a  The  posterior  maxillarj'  or  under  jaw.— &  The  superior  max- 
illary or  upper  jaw.  A  little  lower  down  than  the  letter  is  a  foramen,  through 
which  pass  the  nerves  and  blood-vessels  which  chiefly  supply  the  lower  part  ol 
the  face.— c  The  orbit,  or  cavity  containing  the  eye.— d  The  nasal  bones,  or  bones 
of  the  nose. — e  The  suture  dividing  the  parietal  bones  below  from  the  occipital 
bones  above.—/  The  inferior  maxillary  bone,  containing  the  upper  incisor  teeth. — 
B  The  Seven  Cervical  Vertebrae,  or  bones  of  the  neck.— C  The  Eighteen  Dorsal 
Vertebrse,  or  bones  of  the  back. — D  The  Six  Lumbar  Vertebrae,  or  bones  of  the 
loins. — E  The  P'ive  Sacral  Vertebrae,  or  bones  of  tlie  haunch. — F  The  Caudal 
Vertebrae,  or  bones  of  the  tail,  generally  about  fifteen. — G  The  Scapula,  or  shoul- 
der-blade.— H  The  Sternum,  or  fore-part  of  the  chest. — I  The  Costaeorribs,  seven 
or  eight  articulating  with  the  sternum,  and  called  the  true  ribs;  and  ten  or  eleven 
united  together  by  cartilage,  called  the/a/5e  ribs. — J  The  Humerus,  or  upper  bone 
of  the  arm. — K  The  Radius,  or  upper  bone  of  the  arm. — L  The  Ulna,  or  elbow. 
The  point  of  the  elbow  is  called  the  Olecranon. — M  The  Carpus,  or  knee,  con- 
sisting of  seven  bones.— N  The  metacarpal  bones.  The  larger  metacarpal  or  can 
non  or  shank  in  front,  and  the  smaller  metacarpal  or  splint  bone  behind.—^  The 
fore  pastern  and  foot,  consisting  of  the  Os  Suffraginis,  or  the  upper  and  larger 
pastern  bone,  with  the  sesamoid  bones  behii  t,  articulating  with  the  cannon  and 


154  DOMESTIC    ANIMALS. 

greater  pastern,  the  Os  Corona?,  or  lesser  pastern;  the  Os  Pecis,  or  cofBn- 
bone  ;  and  the  Os  Naviculare,  or  navicular,  or  shuttle-bone,  not  seen,  and  artic- 
ulating with  the  smaller  pastern  and  colnn-bones.— /i  The  corresponding  bones  ot 
the  hind-feet. — O  The  Haunch,  consisting  of  three  portions :  the  Ilium,  the 
Ischium,  and  the  Pubis.— P  The  Femur,  or  thigh.— Q  The  stifle  joint  with  the 
Patella.— R  The  Tibia,  or  proper  leg  bone  ;  behind  is  a  small  bone  called  the 
fibula.— S  The  Tarsus,  or  hock,  composed  of  six  bones.  The  j-rominent  part  is 
the  Os  Calcis,  or  point  of  the  Hock.— T  The  Metatarsals  of  the  hind  leg. 


DISEASES. 

The  list  is  long  and  fearful,  and  even  the  brief  one  subjoined, 
will  be  found  sufficiently  great  to  inculcate  the  utmost  caution 
in  their  management.  The  horse  in  his  natural  condition  is 
subject  to  few  ailments.  It  is  only  in  his  intensely  artificial 
state,  and  when  made  the  slave  of  man,  that  he  becomes  a 
prey  to  disease  in  almost  every  shape.  A  careful  and  judi- 
cious attention  to  his  diet,  water,  exercise,  stable,  and  general 
management,  will  prevent  many  of  those  to  which  he  is  sub- 
ject. 

Glanders. 

This  is  one  of  the  most  alarming.  The  first  and  most 
marked  symptom  is  a  discharge  from  the  nostrils  of  a  peculiar 
character.  The  disease  produces  inflammation  there  and  in  the 
windpipe,  and  in  aggravated  cases  passes  down  to  the  lungs, 
which  are  soon  destroyed. 

It  is pro2oagated  by  contagion,  by  exposure  in  humid  stables, 
and  is  induced  by  hereditary  indisposition  and  great  exhaus- 
tion. Youatt  says,  there  is  not  a  disease  which  may  not  lay 
the  foundation  for  glanders.  Tlie  poison  resides  in  the  nasal 
discharge,  not  in  the  breath.  When  exposed  to  it,  the  man- 
gers should  be  thoroughly  scraped,  washed  with  soap  and 
water,  and  afterwards  with  chloride  of  lime.  All  the  clothing 
and  harness,  which  may  have  received  any  of  the  contagious 
matter,  must  be  thoroughly  cleansed  and  baked. 

lite  best  ^3?*t've72^fi'cs  are  dr}^  clean,  and  well-ventilated 
stables,  proper  exercise,  green  food  in  summer,  and  roots  in 
winter. 

The  disease  may  he  arrested  in  its  early  stages,  by  turning 
the  animal  on  a  dry  pasture,  but  it  is  liable  to  return  on  sub- 
sequent confinement.  Iodine  has  lately  been  announced  as  a 
remedy,  but  of  the  certainty  of  its  effects,  we  are  not  aware. 

It  is  generally  considered  incurable,  and  when  thoroughly 
seated,  it  may  be  deemed  an  act  both  of  humanity  and  econo- 
my to  terminate  the  existence  of  its  victim  at  once.  This 
course  becomes  a  duty,  from  the  fact  that  man}^  grooms,  by 


FARCY LAMPA3 POLL-EVIL HEAVES.  155  . 

their  attendance  on  glandered  horses,  have  been  aflPected,  and 
though  the  disease  is,  in  their  case,  more  manageable,  yet  it  is 
frequently  fatal. 

Farcy, 

This  is  intimately  connected  with  glanders,  and  the  diseases 
frequently  run  into  each  other. 

Lampas. 

This  consists  in  the  swelling  of  the  bars  of  the  mouth  to  a 
level  or  even  above  the  teeth.  It  may  occur  from  inflamma- 
tion of  the  gums  ;  shedding  of  the  teeth  ;  a  febrile  tendency, 
and  from  over-feeding  or  want  of  exercise.  It  will  generally 
subside  by  low  dieting  and  proper  exercise  ;  or  it  may  be  at 
once  reheved  by  lancing  the  bais  with  a  sharp  penknife. 

PolkYil, 

This  arises  from  some  contusion  or  injury  to  the  head, 
which  produces  a  swelling  that  eventually  suppurates.  The 
inflammation  may  be  abated,  in  its  earliest  stages,  by  a  bhster ; 
and  in  its  later,  by  bleeding,  physic,  and  cold  lotions  applied 
to  the  part.  If  these  are  inefteclual,  and  the  sAvelling  con- 
tinues, it  should  be  hastened  by  poultices,  and  warm,  stimula- 
ting lotions ;  and  when  fully  formed,  the  tumor  must  be  open- 
ed, so  as  to  permit  all  the  matter  to  run  out.  Repeated  ap- 
plications of  salt  will  sometimes  cure  it. 

lleaves. 

All  those  affections,  distinguished  in  the  English  veterinary 
works  as  pneumonia  or  inflammation  of  the  lungs,  chronic  coughy 
thick  and  broken  wind,  consumption,  t&c,  are  popularly  desig- 
nated as  heaves.  To  some  or  all  of  these  the  horse  may  have 
an  hereditary  or  constitutional  tendency.  Their  incipient 
stages  are  also  induced  by  a  sudden  transition  from  heat  to 
cold,  and  sometimes  from  cold  to  close  and  hot  stables ;  and 
by  a  chilly  wind  or  damp  stables,  especially  after  severe  ex- 
ercise. Feeding  on  musty,  dry  hay,  or  on  straw,  will  produce 
an  irritation  which  may  lead  to  heaves, 

Inf.ammation  of  the  lungs  is  frequently  dangerous,  and  re- 
quires the  immediate  and  full  use  of  the  lancet.  After  the 
mflammation  is  decidedly  allayed,  by  copious  bleeding,  smaL 
doses  of   aloes    may  be    gi^sn,  and    frequent    injections  of 


156  DOMESTIC    ANIMALS. 

warm  soap  and  water,  whicli  should  be  omitted  the  moment 
the  feces  become  soft  and  approachmg  to  the  fluid  state. 
Bhstermg  the  sides  and  brisket,  to  be  often  repeated  if  other- 
wise ineffectual,  must  be  resorted  to.  Convalescence  should 
be  followed  witli  sedative  medicines,  and  during  all  the  severe 
stages  of  the  disease,  withhold  all  food,  except  light  gruels 
after  protracted  abstinence.  As  health  returns,  put  the  ani- 
mal out  to  grass. 

Inflammation  of  the  lungs  is  sometimes  succeeded  by  a 
chronic  cough,  and  the  other  maladies  enumerated.  When 
firmly  seated,  it  is  incapable  of  removal.  Its  effects  can  be 
alleviated,  and  with  suitable  food  and  treatment,  the  horse 
may  be  made  to  do  much  moderate  labor  for  many  years,  but 
he  can  never  become  sound  or  sustain  great  exertion.  Equal 
and  proper  temperature,  moist,  stimulating  food,  and  espe- 
cially carrots  or  potatoes,  and  moderate  exercise,  (but  never 
on  a  full  stomach,)  and  dry,  clean  stables,  are  all  the  remedie.i 
that  can  be  prescribed. 

Catarrh  or  Horse  Distemper. 

This  sometimes  attacks  the  horse  in  the  spring  or  fall,  and 
is  shown  by  soreness  and  swelling  in  the  glands  of  the  throat , 
a  cough ;  difficulty  of  swallowing ;  discharging  at  the  nose ; 
and  general  prostration.  It  is  seldom  fatal,  if  properly 
managed.  Give  light  bran-mashes,  purge  thoroughly,  and 
keep  warm.  If  he  is  \dolently  attacked,  he  may  be  bled 
while  fever  exists ;  and  blisters  or  setons  may  be  apphed,  to 
reduce  the  swelling,  if  extreme.  The  disease  is  contagious, 
and  the  animal  should  be  at  once  placed  where  he  cannot 
communicate  it. 

Spasmodic  Colic. 

Symptoms. — The  attack  of  colic  is  usually  very  sudden. 
There  is  often  not  the  slio'htest  warnino'.  The  horse  beoins 
to  shift  his  posture,  look  round  at  his  flanks,  paw  violently, 
strike  his  belly  with  his  feet,  and  crouch  in  a  peculiar  man- 
ner, advancing  his  hind  limbs  under  him ;  he  will  then  sud- 
denly he,  or  rather  fall  down,  and  balance  himself  upon  his 
back,  with  his  feet  resting  on  his  belly.  The  pain  now  seems 
to  cease  for  a  httle  while,  and  he  gets  up  and  shakes  himself, 
and  begins  to  feed'';  the  respite,  however,  is  but  short — ^the 
spasm  returns  more  violently — every  indication  of  pam  is  in- 
creased— he  heaves  at   the  fl^rks,  breaks  out  into  a  profuse 


SPASMODIC    COLIC.  167 

perspiration,  and  throws  himself  more  recklessly  about.  In 
the  space  of  an  hour  or  two,  either  the  spasms  begin  to  relax, 
and  the  remissions  are  of  longer  duration,  or  the  torture  is 
augmented  at  every  paroxysm ;  the  intervals  of  ease  are 
fewer  and  less  marked,  and'  inflammation  and  death  super- 
vene. The  pulse  is  but  little  affected  at  the  commencement, 
but  it  soon  becomes  frequent  and  contracted,  and  at  length  is 
scarcely  tangible. 

Among  the  causes  of  colic  are,  the  drinking  of  cold  water 
when  the  horse  is  heated.  There  is  not  a  surer  origin  of  vio- 
lent spasm  than  this.  Hard  water  is  very  apt  to  produce  this 
effect.  Cohc  will  sometimes  follow  the  exposure  of  a  horse 
to  the  cold  air  or  a  cold  wind  after  strong  exercise.  Green 
food,  although,  generally  speaking,  most  beneficial  to  the  horse, 
yet,  given  in  too  large  a  quantity,  or  when  he  is  hot,  will 
frequently  produce  gripes.  Doses  of  aloes,  both  large  and 
small,  are  not  imfrequent  causes  of  colic. 

In  some  horses  there  seems  to  be  a  constitutional  predis- 
position to  colic.  They  cannot  be  hardly  worked,  or  exposed 
tc  unusual  cold,  without  a  fit  of  it.  In  many  cases,  when  these 
horses  have  died,  calculi  have  been  found  in  some  part  of  the 
alimentary  canal.  Habitual  costiveness  and  the  presence  of 
calcuh,  are  frequent  causes  of  spasmodic  colic.  The  seat  of 
colic  is  occasionally  the  duodenum,  but  oftener  the  ileum  or 
the  jejunum ;  sometimes,  however,  both  the  caecum  and  colon 
are  affected.  Fortunately,  we  are  acquainted  with  several 
medicines  that  allay  these  spasms ;  and  the  disease  often 
ceases  as  suddenly  as  it  appeared. 

Remedies. — Turpentine  is  one  of  the  most  powerful  remedies, 
especially  in  union  with  opium,  and  in  good  warm  ale.  A  so- 
lution of  aloes  will  be  advantageously  added  to  the  turpen- 
tine and  opium.  If  relief  is  not  obtained  in  half  an  hour,  it 
will  be  prudent  to  bleed,  for  the  continuance  of  violent  spasm 
may  produce  inflammation.  Some  practitioners  bleed  at  first, 
and  it  is  far  from  bad  practice ;  for  although  the  majority  of 
cases  will  yield  to  turpentine,  opium,  and  aloes,  an  early 
bleeding  may  occasionally  prevent  the  recurrence  of  inflam- 
mation, or  at  least  mitigate  it.  If  it  is  clearly  a  case  of  colic, 
lialf  of  the  first  dose  may  be  repeated,  with  aloes  dissolved  in 
warm  water.  The  stimulus  produced  on  the  inner  surface  of 
the  bowels  by  the  purgative,  may  counteract  the  irritation 
that  caused  the  spasm. 

The  belly  should  be  well  rubbed  with  a  brush  or  warm  cloth, 
but  not  bruised  and  injured  by  the  broom-handle  rubbed  over 

14 


158  DOMESTIC    ANIMALS. 

it,  with  Jill  then  strength,  by  two  great  fellows.  The  horse 
should  be  walked  about  or  trotted  moderately.  The  motion 
thus  produced  in  the  bowels,  and  the  friction  of  one  intestine 
over  the  other,  may  relax  the  spasm,  but  the  hasty  gallop  might 
speedily  cause  inflammation  to  succeed  to  colic. 

Clysters  of  warm  water,  or  containing  a  solution  of  aloes, 
should  be  injected.  The  patent  syringe  will  here  be  exceedingly 
useful.  A  clyster  of  tobacco-smoke  may  be  thrown  up  as  a 
last  resort. 

When  relief  has  been  obtained,  the  clothing  of  the  horse, 
saturated  with  perspiration,  should  be  removed,  and  fresh  and 
dry  clothes  substituted.  He  should  be  well  littered  down  in  a 
warm  stable  or  box,  and  have  bran  mashes  and  lukewarm  wa- 
ter for  the  two  or  three  next  days.  Some  persons  give  gin,  or 
gin  and  pepper,  or  even  spirit  of  pimento,  in  cases  of  gripes. 
This  course  of  proceeding  is,  however,  exceedingly  objection- 
able. It  may  be  useful,  or  even  sufficient,  in  ordinary  cases 
of  colic  ;  but  if  there  should  be  any  inflammation,  or  tendency 
to  inflammati-on,  it  cannot  fail  to  be  highly  injurious. 

Flatulent  Colic. 

This  is  altogether  a  different  disease  from  the  former.  It  is 
not  spasm  of  the  bowels,  but  inflation  of  them,  from  the  pres- 
ence of  gas  emitted  by  undigested  food.  Whether  collected 
in  the  stomach,  or  small  or  large  intestines,  all  kinds  of  vege- 
table matter  are  liable  to  ferment.  In  consequence  of  this 
fermentation  gas  is  evolved  to  a  greater  or  less  extent-— per- 
haps to  twenty  or  thirty  times  the  bulk  of  the  food.  This 
may  take  place  in  the  stomach ;  and  if  so,  the  life  of  the  horse 
is  in  immediate  danger,  for  the  animal  has  no  power  to  expel 
this  dangerous  flatus  by  eructation. 

The  symptoms,  according  to  Professor  Stewart,  are,  "  The 
horse  suddenly  slackening  his  pace,  preparing  to  lie  down,  or 
falling  down,  as  if  he  were  shot.  In  the  stable  he  paws  the 
ground  Avith  his  fore-feet,  lies  down,  rolls,  starts  up  all  at  once, 
and  throws  himself  down  again  with  great  violence,  looking 
wistfully  at  his  flanks,  and  making  many  fruitless  attempts  to 
void  his  urine." 

The  treatment  is  considerably  different  from  that  of  spas- 
modic colic.  The  spirit  of  pimento  would  be  here  allowed,  or 
the  turpentine  and  opium  diink;  but  if  the  pain,  and  espe- 
cially the  sv/ellmg,  do  not  abate,  the  gas,  which  is  the  cause 
of  it,  must  be  got  rid  of,  or  the  animal  is  inevitably  lost.    This 


INFLAMMATION   OF    TIIE  BOWELS.  159 

is  usually,  or  almost  invariably,  a  combination  of  hydrogen 
with  some  other  gas.  It  has  a  strong  affinity  for  chlorine. 
Then  if  some  compound  of  chlorine — the  chloride  of  lime — 
dissolved  in  water,  is  administered  in  the  form  of  a  drink,  the 
chlorine  separates  from  the  lime  as  soon  as  it  comes  in  contact 
with  the  hydrogen,  and  muriatic  gas  is  formed.  This  gas, 
having  a  strong  affinity  for  water,  is  absorbed  by  any  fluid  that 
may  be  present,  and,  quitting  its  gaseous  form,  either  disap- 
pears, or  does  not  retain  a  thousandth  part  of  its  former  bulk. 
All  this  may  be  very  rapidly  accomplished,  for  the  fluid  is 
quickly  conveyed  from  the  mouth  to  every  part  of  the  intes- 
tinal canal. 

Where  these  two  medicines  are  not  at  hand,  and  the  danger 
is  imminent,  the  trochar  may  be  used,  in  order  to  open  a  way 
for  the  escape  of  the  gas.  The  trochar  should  be  small,  but 
longer  than  that  which  is  used  for  the  cow,  and  the  puncture 
should  be  made  in  the  middle  of  the  right  flank,  for  there  the 
large  intestines  are  most  easily  reached.  It  is  only  when  the 
practitioner  despairs  of  otherwise  saving  the  life  of  the  animal, 
that  this  operation  should  be  at  „empted.  Much  of  the  danger 
w^ould  be  avoided  by  using  a  very  small  trochar,  and  by  with- 
drawing it  as  soon  as  the  gas  has  escaped.  The  wound  in 
the  intestines  will  then  probably  close,  from  the  innate  elas- 
ticity of  the  parts. 

Inflamniatioii  of  the  Bowe^ls. 

There  are  two  varieties  ;>f  this  malady.  The  first  is  inflam- 
mation of  the  external  coats  of  the  intestines,  accompanied  by 
considerable  fever,  and  usually  costiveness.  The  second  is  that 
of  the  internal  or  mucous  coat,  and  almost  invariably  connect- 
ed with  purging.  The  muscular  coat  is  that  which  is  oftenest 
aff'ected.  Inflammation  of  the  external  coats  of  the  stomach, 
whether  the  peritoneal  or  muscular,  or  both,  is  a  very  fre- 
quent and  fatal  disease.  It  speedily  runs  its  course,  and  it  is 
of  great  consequence  that  its  early  symptoms  should  be  known. 

Sym'ptoms. — If  the  horse  has  been  carefully  observed,  rest- 
lessness and  fever  will  have  been  seen  to  precede  the  attack. 
In  many  cases  a  direct  shivering  fit  will  occur ;  the  mouth 
will  be  hot,  and  the  nose  red.  The  animal  will  soon  express 
the  most  dreadful  pain  by  pawing,  striking  at  his  belly,  look- 
ing wildly  at  his  flanks,  groaning,  and  rolling.  The  pulse 
will  be  quickened  and  small ;  the  ears  and  legs  cold  ;  the 
bell}   tender,  and   sometimes  hot ;  the  breathing  quickened ; 


160  DOMESTIC    ANIMALS. 

the  bowels  costive  ;  and  the  animal  becoming  rapidly  and  fear* 
fully  weak. 

The  causes  of  this  disease  are,  first  of  all  and  most  fre- 
quen'tly,  sudden  exposure  to  cold.  If  a  horse  that  has  been 
highly  fed,  carefully  groomed,  and  kept  in  a  warm  stable,  is 
hea  ted  with  exercise,  and  has  been  during  some  hours  without 
food,  and  in  this  state  of  exhaustion  is  suffered  to  drink  freely 
of  cold  water,  or  is  drenched  with  rain,  or  have  his  legs  and 
belly  washed  with  cold  water,  an  attack  of  inflammation  of 
the  bowels  will  often  follow.  An  overfed  horse,  subjected  to 
severe  and  long-continued  exertion,  if  his  lungs  were  previ- 
ously weak,  will  probably  be  attacked  by  inflammation  of 
them ;  but  if  the  lungs  were  sound,  the  bowels  will  on  the 
following  day  be  the  seat  of  disease.  Stones  in  the  intestines 
are  an  occasional  cause  of  inflammation,  and  colic  neglected 
or  wrongly  treated  will  terminate  in  it. 

Remedies. — The  treatment  of  inflammation  of  the  bowels, 
like  that  of  the  lungs,  should  be  prompt  and  energetic.  The 
first  and  most  powerful  mean  ?  of  cure  will  be  bleeding.  From 
six  to  eight  or  ten  quarts  of  blood,  in  fact  as  much  as  the 
horse  can  bear,  should  be  abstracted  as  soon  as  possible ;  and 
the  bleeding  repeated  to  the  extent  of  four  or  five  quarts  more, 
if  the  pain  is  not  relieved  and  the  pulse  has  not  become  rounder 
and  fuller.  The  speedy  weakness  that  accompanies  this  dis- 
ease, should  not  deior  from  bleeding  largely.  That  weakness 
is  the  consequence  of  violent  inflammation  of  these  parts  ;  and 
if  that  inflammation  is  subdued  by  the  loss  of  blood,  the  weak- 
ness will  disappear.  The  bleeding  should  be  effected  on  the 
first  appearance  of  the  disease,  for  there  is  no  malady  that 
more  quickly  runs  its  course. 

A  strong  solution  of  aloes  should  immediately  follow  the 
bleeding,  but,  considering  the  irritable  state  of  the  intestines  at 
this  period,  guarded  by  opium.  This  should  be  quickly  fol- 
lowed by  back-raking,  and  injections  consisting  of  warm  water, 
or  very  thin  gruel,  in  v/hich  Epsom  salts  or  aloes  have  been 
dissolved  ;  and  too  much  fluid  can  scarcely  be  thrown  up. 

The  horse  should  likewise  be  encouraged  to  drink  plentifully 
of  warm  water  or  thin  gruel ;  and  draughts,  each  containing  a 
couple  of  drachms  of  dissolved  aloes,  with  a  little  opium, 
should  be  given  every  six  hours,  imtil  the  bowels  are  ireely 
opened.  It  will  now  be  prudent  to  endeavor  to  excite  con- 
siderable external  inflammation,  as  near  as  possible  to  the  seat 
of  internal  disease,  and  therefore  the  whole  of  the  belly  should 
be  blistered. 


INFLAMMATION    OF    THE    BOWELS.  16l 

In  a  well-marked  case  of  this  disease,  no  time  should  be 
lost  in  applying  fomentations,  but  the  blister  at  once  resorted 
to.  The  tincture  of  Spanish  flies,  whether  made  with  spirits 
of  wine  or  turpentine,  should  be  thoroughly  rubbed  in.  The 
legs  should  be  well  bandaged,  in  order  to  restore  the  circula- 
tion in  them,  and  thus  lessen  the  flow  of  blood  to  the  inflamed 
part ;  and,  for  the  same  reason,  the  horse  should  be  warmly 
clothed,  but  the  air  of  the  stable  or  box  should  be  cool. 

No  grain  or  hay  should  be  allowed  during  the  disease,  but 
bran  mashes,  and  green  food  if  it  can  be  procured.  The  latter 
will  be  the  best,  and  may  be  given  withou.  the  slightest  ap- 
prehension of  danger.  When  the  horse  begins  to  recover,  a 
handful  of  grain  may  be  given  two  or  three  times  in  the  day ; 
and,  if  the  weather  is  warm,  he  may  be  turned  into  a  paddock 
for  a  few  hours  in  the  middle*  of  the  day.  Clysters  of  gruel 
should  be  continued  for  three  or  four  days  after  the  inflamma- 
tion is  begiiming  to  subside,  and  good  hand-rubbing  applied 
to  the  legs. 

The  second  variety  of  Inflammation  of  the  Bowels 

Afifects  the  internal  or  mucous  coat,  and  is  generally  the 
consequence  of  physic  in  too  great  quantity,  or  of  an  improper 
kind.  The  purging  is  more  violent  and  continues  longer  than 
was  intended  ;  the  animal  shows  that  he  is  suff'ering  great  pain; 
he  frequently  looks  round  at  his  flanks  ;  his  breathing  is  la- 
borious, and  the  pulse  is  quick  and  small,  and  the  mouth  is 
hot  and  the  legs  and  ears  are  warm. 

Remedies. — Unless  the  purging  is  excessive,  and  the  pain 
and  distress  great,  the  surgeon  should  hesitate  at  giving  any 
astringent  medicine  at  first ;  but  he  should  plentifully  adminis- 
ter gruel  or  thin  starch,  or  arrow-root,  by  the  mouth  and  by 
clyste:-,  removing  all  hay  and  grain,  and  particularly  green 
food.  He  should  thus  endeavor  to  soothe  the  irritated  surface 
of  the  bowels,  while  he  permits  all  remains  of  the  purgative  to 
be  carried  ofl*.  If,  however,  twelve  hours  have  passed,  and 
the  purging  and  the  pain  remain  undiminished,  he  shoidd  con- 
tinue the  gruel,  adding  to  it  chalk,  catechu,  and  opium,  re 
peated  every  six  hours.  As  soon  as  the  purging  begins  to 
subside,  the  astringent  medicine  should  be  lessened  in  quantity, 
and  gradually  discontinued. 

Bleeding  will  rarely  be  necessary,  unless  the  inflammation 
is  very  great,  and  attended  by  symptoms  of  general  fever. 
The  horse  should  be  warmly  clothed,  and  placed  in  a  cotp* 

14* 


162  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS. 

fortable   stable,   and   his   legs  should  be   hand-rubbed   and 
bandaged. 

Violent  purging,  and  attended  with  much  inflammation  and 
fever,  will  occur  from  other  causes.  Green  food  will  fre- 
quently purge  ;  and  a  horse  worked  hard  upon  it  will  sometimes 
scour. 

The  remedy  is  change  of  diet,  or  less  labor.  Young  horses 
will  often  be  strongly  purged,  without  any  apparent  cause. 
Astringents  should  be  used  Avith  much  caution  here.  It  is 
probably  an  effort  of  nature  to  get  rid  of  something  that  offends 
A  few  doses  of  gruel  will  assist  in  effecting  this  purpose,  and 
the  purging  will  cease  without  astringent  medicine. 

Many  horses  that  are  not  well  ribbed  home  (having  too  great 
space  between  the  last  rib  and  the  hip-bone)  are  subject  to 
purging,  if  more  than  usual  e:fertion  is  required  from  them. 
They  are  recognised  by  the  term  of  washy  horses.  They  are 
often  free  and  fleet,  but  destitute  of  continuance.  They  should 
have  rather  more  than  the  usual  allowance  of  grain,  with  beans, 
when  at  work.  A  cordial  ball,  with  catechu  and  opium,  will 
often  be  serviceable  either  before  or  after  a  journey. 

Physicking. 

When  a  horse  comes  from  grass  to  dry  food,  or  from  the 
cool,  open  air  to  a  heated  stable,  a  dose,  or  even  two  doses, 
of  physic  may  be  useful  to  prevent  the  tendency  to  inflamma- 
tion, which  is  the  necessary  consequence  of  so  sudden  and 
great  a  change.  To  a  horse  that  is  becoming  too  fat,  or  has 
surfeit,  grease,  or  mange,  or  that  is  out  of  condition  from  inac- 
tivity of  the  digestive  organs,  a  dose  of  physic  is  often  most 
serviceable.  A  horse  should  be  carefully  prepared  for  the 
action  of  physic.  Two  or  three  bran  mashes  given  on  that  or 
the  preceding  day,  are  far  from  sufficient  when  a  horse  is  about 
to  be  physicked,  whether  to  promote  his  condition,  or  in  obe- 
dience to  custom.  Mashes  should  be  given  until  the  dimg 
becomes  softened.  A  less  quantity  of  physic  will  then  suffice, 
and  it  will  more  quickly  pass  through  the  intestines,  and  be 
more  readily  diffused  over  them. 

Five  drachms  of  aloes,  given  when  the  dung  has  thus  been 
softened,  will  act  more  effectually  and  much  more  safely  than 
seven  drachms,  when  the  lower  intestines  are  obstructed  by 
hardened  feces.  On  the  day  on  which  the  physic  is  given, 
the  horse  should  have  walking  exercise,  or  may  be  gently  trot- 
ted for  a  quarter  of  an  hour  twice  in  the  day ;  but  after  the 


PHYSICK  !NG.  163 

physic  begins  to  work,  he  should  not  be  moved  from  l^is  stall. 
Exercise  would  then  produce  gripes,  irritation,  and,  possibly 
dangerous  inflammation.  A  little  hay  may  be  put  into  the 
rack.  As  much  mash  should  be  given  as  the  horse  will  eat, 
and  as  much  water,  with  the  coldness  of  it  taken  off,  as  he- 
will  drink.  If,  however,  he  obstinately  refuses  to  irink  warm 
water,  it  is  better  that  he  should  have  it  cold,  than  to  continue 
without  taking  any  fluid  ;  but  in  such  case  he  should  not  be 
suff"ered  to  take  more  than  a  quart  at  a  time,  with  an  interval 
of  at  least  an  hour  between  each  draught. 

When  the  purging  has  ceased,  or  the  'physic  is  set,  a  mash 
should  be  given  once  or  twice  every  day  until  the  next  dose 
is  taken,  between  which  and  the  setting  of  the  first,  there  should 
be  an  interval  of  a  week.  The  horse  should  recover  from  the 
languor  and  debility  occasioned  by  the  first  dose,  before  he  is 
harassed  by  a  second.  Eight  or  ten  tolerably  copious  mo- 
tions, will  be  perfectly  sufficient  to  answer  every  good  purpose, 
although  the  groom  may  not  be  satisfied  unless  double  the 
quantity  are  procured.  The  consequence  of  too  strong  purga- 
tion will  be,  that  weakness  will  hang  about  the  animal  for  sev- 
eral days  or  weeks,  ana  inflammation  will  often  ensue  from 
the  over-irritation  of  the  intestinal  canal. 

Long-continued  custom  has  made  aloes  the  almost  invaria- 
ble purgative  of  the  horse,  and  very  properly  so  ;  for  there  is 
no  other  at  once  so  sure  and  so  safe.  The  Barbadoes  aloes, 
although  sometimes  very  dear,  should  alone  be  used.  The 
dose,  with  a  horse  properly  prepared,  will  vary  from  four  to 
seven  drachms.  Custom  has  assigned  the  form  of  a  ball  to 
physic,  but  good  sense  will  in  due  time  introduce  the  solution 
of  aloes,  as  acting  more  speedily,  eff'ectually,  and  safely. 

The  only  other  purgative  on  which  dependence  can  be  placed 
is  the  CROTON.  The  farina  or  meal  of  the  nut  is  generally 
used ;  but  from  its  acrimony  it  should  be  given  in  the  form  of 
ball,  with  linseed  meal.  The  dose  varies  from  a  scruple  to 
half  a  drachm.  It  acts  more  speedily  than  the  aloes,  and 
without  the  nausea  which  they  produce  ;  but  it  causes  more 
watery  stools,  and,  consequently,  more  debihty. 

Linseed  oil  is  an  uncertain  but  safe  purgative,  in  doses 
from  a  pound  to  a  pound  and  a  half.  Olive  oil  is  more  im- 
certain,  but  safe  ;  but  castor  oil,  that  mild  aperient  in  the 
human  being,  is  both  uncertain  and  unsafii.  Epsom  salts  are 
inefficacious,  except  in  the  immense  dose  of  a  pound  and  a 
half,  and  then  they  are  not  always  safe. 


164  D(;MEST1C    ANIMALS, 

»  Worms. 

The  long  white  "vorm  {lumhricus  te=:^s)  much  resembles  the 
common  earth-worm,  and  beino^  from  six  to  ten  inches  in  lenarth, 
inhabits  the  small  intestines.  It  is  a  formidable  looking  ani- 
mal ;  and  if  there  are  many  of  them,  they  may  consume  more 
than  can  be  spared  of  the  nutritive  part  of  the  food,  or  tlie 
muc^s  of  the  bowels.  A  tight  skin,  and  rough  coat,  and 
tucked-up  belly,  are  sometimes  connected  with  their  presence, 
r^hey  are  then,  however,  voided  in  large  quantities. 

Jxehiedies. — A  dose  of  physic  will  sometimes  bring  away 
almost  incredible  quantities  of  them.  Calomel  is  frequently 
given  as  a  vei'mifuge.  The  seldomer  this  drug  is  adminis- 
tered to  the  horse,  the  better.  When  the  horse  can  be  spared, 
a  strong  dose  of  physic  is  an  excellent  vermifuge,  so  far 
as  the  long  round  worm  is  concerned.  But  a  better  medicine, 
and  not  interfering  with  either  the  feeding  or  work  of  the 
horse,  is  emetic  tartar,  with  ginger,  made  into  a  ball  with  hn- 
seed  meal  and  treacle,  and  given  every  morning,  half  an  hour 
before  the  horse  is  fed. 

A  smaller,  darker  colored  worm,  called  the  needle-worm, 
ur  ascaris,  inhabits  the  larger  intestines.  Hundreds  of  them 
sometimes  descend  into  the  rectum,  and  immense  quantities 
have  been  found  in  the  coecum.  These  are  a  more  serious 
nuisance  than  the  former,  for  they  cause  a  very  troublesome 
irritation  about  the  fundament,  which  sometimes  sadly  annoys 
the  horse.  Their  existence  can  generally  be  discovered  by  a 
small  portion  of  mucus,  which,  hardening,  is  found  adhering 
to  the  anus. 

Remedies. — Physic  will  sometimes  bring  away  great  numbers 
of  these  worms  ;  but  when  there  is  much  irritation  about  the 
tail,  and  much  of  this  mucus,  indicating  that  they  have  de- 
scended into  the  rectum,  an  injection  of  linseed  oil,  or  of  aloes 
dissolved  in  warm  water,  will  be  a  more  effectual  remedy. 
The  tape-worm  is  seldom  found  in  the  horse. 


While  they  inhabit  the  stomacJi  of  the  horse,  cannot  give 
the  animal  any  pain,  for  they  have  fastened  on  the  cuticular 
and  insensible  coat.  They  cannot  stimulate  the  stomach 
and  increase  its  digestive,  power,  for  they  are  not  on  the  di- 
gestive jwrtion  of  the  stomach.  They  cannot,  by  tlieir  rough- 
ness, assist  the  trituration  or  rubbing  down  of  the  food,  for 
no  such  office  is  pei  formed  in  that  part  of  the  stomach — the 


WIND-GALLS.  165 

food  is  softened,  not  rubbed  do^\^l.  They  cannot  be  injurious 
to  the  horse,  for  he  enjoys  the  most  perfect  health  when 
the  cuticular  part  of  his  stomach  is  filled  with  them,  and 
their  presence  is  riot  even  suspected  until  they  appear  at  the 
anus. 

They  cannot  be  removed  by  medicine,  because  they  are  not 
in  that  part  of  the  stomach  in  which  medicine  is  usually  con- 
veyed ;  and  if  they  were,  their  mouths  are  too  deeply  buried 
in  the  mucus  for  any  medicine,  that  can  be  safely  adminis- 
tered, to  affect  them  ;  and,  last  of  all,  in  due  course  of  time 
they  detach  themselves,  and  come  away.  Therefore,  the 
wise  man  will  leave  them  to  themselves,  or  content  himself 
with  picking  them  off  when  they  collect  imder  the  tail  and 
annoy  the  animal. 

Wind-galls. 

In  the  neighborhood  of  the  fetlock,  there  are  occasionally 
found  considerable  enlargements,  oftener  on  the  hind-leg  than 
the  fore  one,  which  are  denominated  luind-galls.  Between  the 
tendons  and  other  parts,  and  wherever  the  tendons  are  exposed 
to  pressure  or  friction,  and  particularly  about  their  extremities, 
little  bags  or  sacs  are  placed,  containing  and  suffering  to  ooze 
slowly  from  them,  a  mucous  fluid  to  lubricate  the  parts. 
From  undue  pressure,  and  that  most  frequently  caused  by 
violent  action  and  straining  of  the  tendons,  or  often  from  some 
predisposition  about  the  horse,  these  little  sacs  are  injured. 
They  take  on  inflammation,  and  sometimes  become  large  and 
indurated.  There  are  few  horses  perfectly  free  from  them. 
When  they  first  appear,  and  until  the  inflammation  subsides, 
they  may  be  accompanied  by  some  degree  of  lameness ;  but 
otherwise,  except  when  they  attain  a  great  size,  they  do  not 
interfere  with  the  action  of  the  animal,  or  cause  any  consider- 
able unsoundness.  The  farriers  used  to  suppose  that  they 
contained  wind — hence  their  name,  mnd-galls  ;  and  hence  the 
practice  of  opening  them,  by  which  dreadful  inflammation 
was  often  produced,  and  many  a  valuable  horse  destroyed. 

Remedies. — A  slight  \\and-gall  will  scarcely  be  subjected  to 
treatment ;  but  if  these  tumors  are  numerous  and  large,  and 
seem  to  impede  the  motion  of  the  hmb,  they  may  be  attacked 
first  by  bandage.  The  roller  should  be  of  flannel,  and  soft  pads 
should  be  placed  on  each  of  the  enlargements,  and  bound 
down  tightly  upon  them.  The  bandage  should  also  be  wetted 
with  warm  water,  two  or  three  times  a  day,  for  half  an  hour 
each  time.     The  wind-gall  wi?i  often  diminish  or  disappear 


166  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS. 

by  this  treatment,  but  will  too  frequently  return,  wliin  .he 
horse  is  again  hardly  worked. 

A  blister  is  a  more  effectual,  but  too  often  temporary  remedy. 
Firing  is  still  more  certain,  if  the  tumors  are  sufficiently  large 
and  annoying  to  justify  our  having  recourse  to  measures  so 
severe ;  for  it  will  not  only  effect  the  immediate  absorption  of 
the  fluid,  and  the  reduction  of  the  swelling,  but,  by  contract- 
ing the  skin,  will  act  as  a  permanent  bandage,  and  therefore 
prevent  the  reappearance  of  the  tumor.  The  iodine  and 
mercurial  ointments  have  occasionally  been  used  with  advantage, 
in  the  proportion  of  three  parts  of  the  former  to  two  of  the 
latter. 

{nflammatioii  of  tlie  Fetlock. 

The  fetlock-joint  is  a  yqvj  complicated  one,  and  from  the 
stress  which  is  laid  on  it,  and  its  being  the  principal  seat  of 
motion  below  the  knee,  it  is  particularly  subject  to  injury. 
There  are  not  many  cases  of  sprain  of  the  back-sinew,  that  are 
not  accompanied  by  inflammation  of  the  ligaments  of  this 
joint ;  and  numerous  supposed  cases  of  sprain  higher  up,  are 
simple  affections  of-  the  fetlock.  It  requires  a  great  deal  of 
care,  and  some  experience,  to  distinguish  the  one  from  the 
other.  The  heat  about  the  part,  and  the  point  at  which  the 
horse  least  endures  the  pressure  of  the  finger,  will  be  the  prin- 
cipal guides. 

Remedy. — Occasionally,  by  the  application  of  cooling  lotions, 
the  inflammation  may  be  subdued,  but  at  other  times,  the 
horse  suffers  dreadfully,  and  is  unable  to  stand.  A  serious 
affection  of  the  fetlock-joint  demands  prompt  treatment. 

Cutting. 

The  inside  of  the  fetlock  is  often  bruised  by  the  shoe  or 
the  hoof  of  the  opposite  foot.  Many  expedients  used  to  be 
tried  to  remove  this ;  the  inside  heel  has  been  raised  and  low- 
ered, and  the  outside  raised  and  lowered ;  and  sometimes  one 
operation  has  succeeded,  and  sometimes  the  contrary  ;  and 
there  was  no  point  so  involved  in  obscurity  or  so  destitute  of 
principles  to  guide  the  practitioner. 

Remedy. — ^The  most  successful  remedy  and  that  which  in 
the  great  majority  of  cases  supersedes  all  others,  is  Mr.  Tur- 
ner's shoe,  of  equal  thickness  from  heel  to  toe,  and  having 
but  one  nail,  and  that  near  the  toe,  on  the  inside  of  the  shoe  ; 
care  bein^  taken  that  the  shoe  shall  not  extend  beyond  fhe 


SFKAIN  OF  THE  COFFIN-JOINT --RINGBOTVE.  167 

edge  of  the  crust,  and  that  the  crust  shall  be  rasped  a  little 
at  the  quarters. 

Sprain  of  the  Comn-Joint. 

The  proof  of  this  is  when  the  lameness  is  sudden,  and  the 
heat  and  tenderness  are  principally  felt  round  the  coronet. 

Remedy. — Bleeding  at  the  toe,  physic,  fomentation,  and  blis- 
ters, are  the  usual  means  adopted.  This  lameness  is  not  easily 
removed,  even  by  a  bhster  ;  and  if  removed,  like  sprains  of 
the  fetlock  and  of  the  back-sinews,  it  is  apt  to  return,  and 
finally  produce  a  great  deal  of  disorganization  and  mischief  in 
the  foot.  Sprain  of  the  coffin-joint  sometimes  becomes  a  very 
serious  affair.  Not  being  always  attended  by  any  external 
swelling,  and  being  detected  only  by  heat  round  the  coronet 
the  seat  of  the  lameness  is  often  overlooked  by  the  groom  ana 
the  farrier ;  and  the  disease  is  suffered  to  become  confirmed 
before  its  nature  is  discovered. 

Ringbone. 

This  is  a  deposite  of  bony  matter  in  one  of  the  pasterns, 
and  usually  near  the  joint.  It  rapidly  spreads,  and  involves 
not  only  the  pastern-bones,  but  the  cartilages  of  the  foot,  and 
spreading  around  the  pasterns  and  cartilages,  thus  derives  its 
name.  When  the  first  deposite  is  on  the  lower  pastern,  and 
on  both  sides  of  it,  and  produced  by  violent  inflammation  of 
the  ligaments  of  the  joints,  it  is  recognised  by  a  "HgHt  en- 
largement, or  bony  tumor  on  each  side  of  the  foot,  and  just 
above  the  coronet. 

Horses  with  short  upright  joints,  and  with  small  feet  and 
high  action,  are  oftenest,  as  may  be  supposed,  the  subjects  of 
this  disease,  which  is  the  consequence  either  of  concussion  or 
sprain  of  the  pastern-joints.  It  is  also  more  frequent  in  the 
hind  foot  than  the  fore,  because,  from  the  violent  action  of  the 
hind  legs  in  propelling  the  horse  forward,  the  pasterns  are 
more  subject  to  ligamentary  injury  behind  than  before ;  yet 
the  lameness  is  not  so  great  there,  because  the  disease  is  con- 
fined principally  to  the  ligaments,  and  the  bones  have  not  beei 
injured  by  concussion  ;  vvhile,  from  the  position  of  the  fore 
limbs,  there  vrill  generally  be  in  them  injury  of  the  bones  to 
be  added  to  that  of  the  ligaments. 

Remedy. — In  its  early  stage,  and  when  recognised  only  by 
a  bony  enlargement  on  both  sides  of  the  pastern -joint,  or  in 
WHue  few  cases  on  one  side  only,  tke  lamen-ess  is  not  very  con- 


168  DCMESTIC    ANIMALS. 

siderable,  and  it  is  not  impossible  to  remove  the  disease  by 
active  blistering,  or  by  the  application  of  the  cautery ;  but 
there  is  so  much  wear  and  tear  in  this  part  of  the  animal,  that 
the  inflammation  and  the  disposition  to  the  formation  of  bone 
rapidly  spread.  The  pasterns  first  become  connected  together 
by  bone  instead  of  hgament,  and  thence  results  what  is  called 
an  anchylosed  or  fixed  joint.  From  this  joint  the  disease  pro- 
ceeds to  the  cartilages  of  the  foot,  and  to  the  union  between 
the  lower  pastern,  and  the  coffin  and  navicular  bones.  The 
motion  of  these  parts  likewise  is  impeded  or  lost,  and  the 
whole  of  the  foot  becomes,  one  mass  of  spongy  bone. 

Enlargement  of  tlie  Hock. 

First,  there  is  inflammation,  or  sprain  of  the  hocJc-johit  gener-_ 
ally,  arising  from  sudden  violent  concussion,  by  some  check  at 
speed,  or  over-weight,  and  attended  with  enlargement  of  the 
whole  joint,  and  great  tenderness  and  lameness. 

Remedy. — This,  however,  like  all  other  diff"used  inflamma- 
tions, is  not  so  untractable  as  an  intense  one  of  a  more  circum- 
scribed nature,  and  by  rest  and  fomentation,  or,  perchance, 
firing,  the  limb  recovers  its  action,  and  the  horse  becomes  fit 
for  ordinary  work.  Tiie  swelling,  however,  does  not  always 
subside.  Enlai-gement,  spread  over  the  whole  of  the  hock- 
joint,  remains. 

A  horse  with  an  enlarged  hock  must  always  be  regarded 
with  su^iDicion.  In  truth,  he  is  unsound.  The  parts,  altered 
in  structure,  must  be  to  a  certain  degree  weakened.  The  ani- 
mal may  discharge  his  usual  work  during  a  long  peri®d,  with- 
out return  of  lameness  ;  but  if  one  of  those  emergencies  should 
occur  when  all  his  energies  require  to  be  exerted,  the  disor- 
ganized and  weakened  part  will  fail.  He  may  be  ridden  or 
driven  moderately  for  many  a  year  without  inconvenience,  yet 
one  extra  hard  day's  work  may  lame  him  forever. 

Curb. 

There  ai-e  often  injuries  of  particular  parts  of  the  hock- 
joint.  Curh  is  an  aftection  of  this  kind.  It  is  an  enlargement 
at  the  back  of  the  hock,  three  or  four  inches  below  its  point. 
It  is  either  a  strain  of  the  ring-like  ligament  which  binds  the 
tendons  in  their  place,  or  of  the  sheath  of  the  tendons ; 
oftener,  however,  of  the  ligament  than  of  the  sheath.  Any 
sudden  action  of  the  limb  of  more  than  usual  violence  may 
produce  it,  and  therefore  horses  are  found  to  throw  out  curbs 


CURBS.  169 

after  a  hardly-contested  race,  an  extraordinary  leap,  a  severe 
gallop  over  heavy  ground,  or  a  sudden  check  in  the  gallop. 

Young  horses  are  particularly  liable  to  it,  and  horses  that 
are  cow-hocked,  whose  hocks  and  legs  resemble  those  of  the 
cow,  the  hocks  being  turned  inwards,  and  legs  forming  a  con- 
siderable angle  outwards.  This  is  intelligible  enough ;  for  in 
hocks  so  formed,  the  annular  ligament  must  be  continually  on 
the  stretch,  in  order  to  confine  the  tendon.  Curbs  are  gen- 
erally accompanied  by  considerable  lameness  at  their  first  ap- 
pearance, but  the  swelling  is  not  always  great.  They  are  best 
detected  by  observing  the  leg  sidewise. 

Remedies. — The  first  object  in  attempting  the  cure,  is  to 
abate  inflammation,  and  this  will  be  most  readily  accomplished 
by  cold  evaporating  lotions,  frequently  applied  to  the  part. 
Equal  portions  of  spirit  of  wine,  water,  and  vinegar,  will  af- 
ford an  excellent  application.  It  will  be  almost  impossible  to 
keep  a  bandage  on.  If  the  heat  and  lameness  are  considera- 
ble, it  will  be  prudent  to  give  a  dose  of  physic,  and  to  bleed 
from  the  subcutaneous  vein,  whose  course  is  near  it;  and 
whether  the  injury  is  of  the  annular  ligament,  or  the  sheath 
of  the  tendon,  more  active  means  will  be  necessary  to  perfect 
a  cure. 

Either  a  liquid  blister  should  be  rubbed  on  the  part,  con- 
sisting of  a  vinus  or  turpentine  tincture  of  cantharides,  and 
this  daily  applied  until  some  considerable  swelling  takes 
place ;  or,  what  is  the  preferable  plan,  the  hair  should  be  cut 
off,  and  the  part  blistered  as  soon  as  the  heat  has  been  sub- 
dued. The  blister  should  be  repeated,  until  the  swelling  has 
disappeared,  and  the  horse  goes  sound. 

In  severe  cases  it  may  be  necessary  to  fire  ;  but  a  fair  trial, 
however,  should  be  given  to  milder  measures.  If  the  iron  is 
used,  it  should  be  applied  in  straight  lines. 

There  are  few  lamenesses  in  which  absolute  and  long-con- 
tinued rest  is  more  requisite.  It  leaves  the  parts  materially 
weakened,  and,  if  the  horse  is  soon  put  to  work  again,  the 
lameness  will  frequently  return.  No  horse  that  has  had  curbs, 
should  be  put  even  to  ordinary  work  in  less  than  a  month 
after  the  apparent  cure  ;  and,  even  then  he  should  very  gradu- 
ally resume  his  former  habits. 

A  horse  with  a  curb,  is  manifestly  unsound,  or  generally 
condemned  as  unsound.  Curb  is  also  an  hereditary  complaint ; 
and  therefore  a  horse  that  has  once  suffered  from  it,  should 
always  be  regarded  with  suspicion,  especially  if  either  of  llie 
parents  have  exliibited  it. 

15 


170  DOMESTIC    ANIMALS. 

Bone  SpaYin. 

This  is  an  afiection  of  the  bones  of  the  hock -joint.  Spav- 
ined horses  are  generally  capable  of  slow  work.  They  are 
equal  to  the  greater  part  of  the  work  of  the  farm,  and  there- 
fore they  should  not  always  be  rejected  by  the  small  farmer, 
as  they  may  generally  be  procured  at  a  small  price.  These 
horses  are  not  only  capable  of  agricultural  work,  but  they 
generally  improve  under  it.  The  lameness  in  some  degree 
abates,  and  even  the  bony  tumor  to  a  certain  degree  lessens. 
There  is  sufficient  moderate  motion  and  friction  of  the  limb  to 
rouse  the  absorbents  to  action,  and  cause  them  to  take  up  a 
portion  of  the  bony  matter  thrown  out,  but  not  enough  to  re- 
new or  prolong  inflammation.  It  cannot  be  said  that  the 
plow  affords  a  ciire  for  spavin,  but  the  spavined  horse  often 
materially  improves  while  working  at  it.  For  fast  work,  and 
for  work  that  must  be  regularly  performed,  spavined  horses 
are  not  well  calculated ;  for  this  lameness  behind  produces 
great  difficulty  in  rising,  and  the  consciousness  that  he  will 
not  be  able  to  rise  without  painful  effort,  occasionally  prevents 
the  horse  from  lying  down  at  all ;  and  the  animal  that  cannot 
rest  well,  cannot  long  travel  far  or  fast. 

Remedies. — The  treatment  of  spavin  is  simple  enough,  but 
far  from  being  always  effectual.  The  owner  of  the  horse  will 
neither  consult  his  own  interest,  nor  the  dictates  of  humanity, 
if  he  suffers  the  chisel  and  mallet,  or  the  gimlet,  or  the  point- 
ed iron,  or  arsenic  to  be  used ;  yet  measures  of  considerable 
severity  must  be  resorted  to.  Repeated  blisters  will  usually 
cause  either  the  absorption  of  the  bony  deposite,  or  the  abate- 
ment  or  removal  of  the  inflammation  of  the  ligaments,  or,  as 
a  last  resource,  the  heated  iron  may  be  apphed. 

Swelled  Legs. 

The  fore-legs,  but  oftener  the  hind  ones,  and  especially  in 
coarse  horses,  are  sometimes  subject  to  considerable  enlarge- 
ment. Occasionally,  when  the  horse  does  not  seem  to  labor 
under  any  other  disease,  and  sometimes  from  an  apparent 
shifting  of  disease  from  other  parts,  the  hind  legs  suddenly 
swell  to  an  enormous  degree  from  the  hock,  and  almost  from 
the  stifle  to  the  fetlock,  attended  by  a  greater  or  less  degree 
of  heat,  and  tenderness  of  the  skin,  and  sometimes  excessive 
and  very  pecuhar  lameness.  The  pulse  likewise  becomes  quick 
ftod  hara,  and  the  horse  evidently  labors  under  considerable 


GREASE.  171 

fever.  It  is  acute  inflammation  of  the  cellular  substance  of 
the  legs,  and  that  most  sudden  in  its  attack,  and  most  violent 
in  its  degree,  and  therefore  attended  by  the  effusion  of  a  con- 
sidemble  quantity  of  fluid  into  the  cellular  membrane.  It  oc- 
curs in  young  horses,  and  in  those  ivhich  are  over-fed  and 
little  exercised. 

Remedies. — Fomentation,  diuretics,  or  purgatives,  or,  if 
there  is  much  fever,  a  moderate  bleeding,  will  often  relieve  the 
distention  almost  as  suddenly  as  it  appeared.  Mild  cases  will 
generally  yield  to  their  influence  ;  but,  if  the  animal  has  been 
neglected,  the  treatment  must  be  decisive.  If  the  horse  is  in 
high  condition,  these  should  be  preceded  or  accompanied  by 
bleeding  ;  but  if  there  are  any  symptoms  of  debility,  bleeding 
i^ould  only  increase  the  want  of  tone  in  the  vessels. 

Horses  taken  from  grass  and  brought  into  close  stables, 
very  speedily  have  swelled  legs,  because  the  difference  of  food 
and  increase  of  nutriment  rapidly  increase  the  quantity  of 
the  circulating  fluid,  while  the  want  of  exercise  takes  away 
the  means  by  which  it  might  be  got  rid  of.  The  remedy  here 
is  sufficiently  plain. 

Swelled  legs,  however,  may  proceed  from  general  debility. 
They  may  be  the  consequence  of  starvation,  or  disease  that 
has  considerably  weakened  the  animal ;  and  these  parts,  being 
farthest  from  the  centre  of  circulation,  are  the  first  to  show 
the  loss  of  power  by  the  accumulation  of  fluid  in  them.  Here 
the  means  of  cure  vfould  be  to  increase  the  general  strength, 
with  which  the  extremities  would  sympathize.  Mild  diuretics 
and  tonics  would  therefore  be  evidently  indicated. 

Horses  in  the  spi'ing  and  fall  are  subject  to  swelled  legs. 
The  powers  of  the  constitution  c.re  piincipally  employed  in 
providing  a  new  coat  for  the  animal,  and  the  extremities  have 
not  their  share  of  vital  mfluence.  Mingled  cordials  and  diu- 
retics are  indicated  here ;  the  diuretic  to  lessen  the  quantity 
of  the  circulating  fluid,  and  the  cordial  to  invigorate  thf, 
frame. 

Grease- 
Swelled  legs,  although  distinct  from  grease,  is  a  disease  that 
is  apt  to  degenerate  into  it.  Grease  is  a  specific  inflammation 
of  the  skin  of  the  heels,  sometimes  of  the  fore-feet,  but  oftener 
of  the  hinder  ones.  Bad  stable  management  is  the  true  cause 
of  it.  Grease  is  a  local  complaint.  The  heel  should  be  well 
but  gently  washed  with  soap  and  water,  and  as  much  of  the 


172  DOMESTIC    ANIM/  LS. 

scurf  detaclied  as  is  easily  removable.  An  ointment  should 
be  applied,  to  supple,  cool,  and  heal  the  part. 

When  cracks  appear,  the  mode  of  treatment  will  depend  on 
their  extent  and  depth.  If  the  cracks  are  deep,  with  an 
ichorous  discharge  and  considerable  lameness,  it  will  be  neces- 
sary to  poultice  the  heel.  A  poultice  of  linseed  meal  will  be 
generally  effective,  unless  the  discharge  is  thin  and  offensive, 
when  an  ounce  of  finely-powdered  charcoal  should  be  mixed 
with  the  linseed  meal ;  or  a  poultice  of  carrots,  boiled  soft 
find  mashed.  After  the  chaps  or  cracks  have  healed,  the  legs 
will  sometimes  continue  gorged  and  swelled.  A  flannel  band- 
age, evenly  applied  over  the  whole  of  the  swelled  part,  will 
be  very  serviceable  ;  or  should  the  season  admit  of  it,  a  run 
at  grass,  particularly  spring  grass,  should  be  allowed. 

The  feeding  should  likewise  vary  with  the  case,  but  with 
these  rules,  which  admit  of  no  exception;  that  green  food 
should  be  given,  and  more  especially  carrots,  when  they  are 
not  too  expensive  ;  and  mashes,  if  the  horse  will  eat  them  ; 
and  never  the  full  allowance  of  grain. 

Walking  exercise  should  be  resorted  to  as  soon  as  the  horse 
is  able  to  bear  it,  and  this  by  degrees  may  be  increased  to  a 
gentle  trot. 

From  bad  stable-management  at  first,  and  neglect  during 
the  disease,  a  yet  worse  kind  of  grease  occasionally  appears. 
The  ulceration  extends  over  the  skin  of  the  heel  and  the  fet- 
lock, and  a  fungus  springs  from  the  surface  of  both,  highly 
sensible,  bleeding  at  the  slightest  touch,  and  interspersed  with 
scabs.  By  degrees  portions  of  the  fungus  begin  to  be  covCi-ed 
with  a  horn}^  substance,  protruding  in  the  form  of  knobs,  and 
collected  together  in  bunches.  These  are  known  by  the  name 
of  grcioes.  A  foetid  and  very  peculiar  exudation,  proceeds 
from  nearly  the  whole  of  the  unnatural  substance.  The 
horse  evidently  suffers  much,  and  is  gradually  worn  down  by 
the  discharge.  The  assistance  of  a  veterinary  surgeon  is  here 
indispensable. 

Some  horses  are  more  subject  to  grease  than  others,  par- 
ticularly draught-horses,  both  heavy  and  light,  but  particularly 
the  former,  and  if  they  have  no  degree  of  hlood  in  them.  It 
was  the  experience  of  this,  which  partly  contributed  to  the 
gradual  change  of  coach  and  other  draught-horses  to  those  of 
a  hghter  breed.  In  the  great  majority  of  cases,  grease  arises 
from  mismanagement  and  neglect. 

Every  thing  that  has  a  tendency  to  excite  inflammation  in 
the.  skin  of  the  heel  is  a  cause  of  grease.     Therefore  want 


(JUTTING  TPIE  HAIR  FROM  THE  HEELS SETONS.       173 

of  exercise  is  a  frequent  source  of  this  disease.  When  high 
feeding  is  added  to  irregular  or  deficient  exercise,  the  disease 
is  evidently  still  more  likely  to  be  produced.  Want  of  clean- 
liness in  the  stable  is  a  fruitful  source  of  grease.  When  the 
heels  are  imbedded  in  filth,  they  are  weakened  by  the  con- 
stant moisture  surrounding  them.  The  absurd  practice  of 
washing  the  feet  and  legs  of  horses  when  they  come  from 
their  work,  and  either  carelessly  sponging  them  do\Yn  after- 
wards, or  leaving  them  to  dry  as  they  may,  is,  however,  the 
most  common  origin  of  grease. 

When  the  horse  is  warmed  by  his  work,  and  the  heels  share 
in  the  warmth,  the  momentary  cold  of  washing  may  not  be 
injurious,  if  the  animal  is  immediately  rubbed  dry ;  yet  even 
this  would  be  better  avoided  ;  but  to  wash  out  the  heels,  and 
then  leave  them  partially  dry  or  perfectly  wet,  and  suffering 
from  the  extreme  cold  that  is  produced  by  evaporation  from  a 
moist  and  wet  surface,  is  the  most  absurd,  dangerous,  and  in- 
jurious practice  that  can  be  imagined.  It  is  worse,  when  the 
post-horse  or  the  plow-horse  is  plunged  up  to  his  belly  in  the 
river  or  pond  immediately  after  his  work. 

Cutting  the  Hair  from  the  Heels. 

Custom  has  very  properly  retained  the  hair  on  our  farm- 
horses.  Nature  would  not  have  given  it  had  it  not  been  use- 
ful. It  guards  the  heel  from  being  injured  by  the  inequahties 
of  the  plowed  field,  and  prevents  the  dirt,  in  which  the 
heels  are  constantly  enveloped,  from  reaching,  and  caking  on, 
and  irritating  the  skin.  When  the  horse  is  carefully  tended 
after  his  work  is  over,  and  his  legs  quickly  and  completely 
dried,  the  less  hair  he  has  about  them  the  better,  for  then  both 
the  skin  and  the  hair  can  be  made  perfectly  dry  before  evapo- 
ration begins,  or  proceeds  so  far  as  to  deprive  the  legs  of  their 
heat.     Grease  is  the  child  of  negligence  and  mismanagement. 

Setons 

Are  pieces  of  tape  or  cord,  passed,  by  means  of  an  instru- 
ment resembling  a  large  needle,  either  through  abscesses,  or 
the  base  of  ulcers  with  deep  sinuses,  or  between  the  skin  and 
the  muscular  or  other  substances  beneath.  They  are  re- 
tained there  by  the  ends  being  tied  together,  or  by  a  knot  at 
each  end.  The  tape  is  moved  in  the  wound  twice  or  thrice  in 
the  day,  and  occasionally  wetted  with  spirits  of  turpentine,  or 
some  acrid  fluid,  in  order  to  increase  the  inflammation  which 

15* 


174  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS. 

it  produces,  or  the  discharge  which  is  intended  to  be  estab- 
lished. 

In  abscesses,  such  as  occur  in  the  withers  or  the  poll,  and 
when  passed  from  the  summit  to  the  very  bottom  of  the  swell- 
ing, I  etons  are  highly  useful  by  discharging  the  purulent  fluid, 
and  suffering  any  fresh  quantity  of  it  that  may  be  secreted  to 
flow  out ;  and,  by  the  degree  of  inflammation  which  they  ex- 
cite on  the  interior  of  the  tumor,  stimulating  it  to  throw  out 
healthy  granulations,  which  graduall}^  occupy  and  fill  the  hol- 
low. In  deep  fistulous  wounds  they  are  indispensable,  for  ex- 
cept some  channel  is  made  through  which  the  matter  may  flow 
from  the  bottom  of  the  wound,  it  will  continue  to  penetrate 
deeper  into  the  part,  and  the  healing  process  will  never  be  ac- 
complished. On  these  accounts,  a  seton  passing  through  the  base 
of  the  ulcer  in  poll-evil  and  fistulous  withers  is  so  beneficial. 

Setons  are  sometimes  useful  by  promoting  a  discharge  in  the 
neighborhood  of  an  inflamed  part,  and  thus  diverting  and  car- 
rying away  a  portion  of  the  fluids  which  distend  or  overload 
the  vessels  of  that  part ;  thus,  a  seton  is  placed  with  consid- 
erable advantage  in  the  cheek,  when  the  eyes  are  much  in- 
flamed."— (  Youatt.) 

Founder, 

Or  inflammation  of  the  foot,  arises  from  various  causes  ;  ex 
cessive  exertion,  great  heat,  and  particularly  when  followed  by 
drinking  cold  water,  or  overloading  the  stomach  in  any  way, 
sudden  transition  from  great  cold  to  excessive  heat,  and  change 
of  inflammation  from  some  other  part. 

Remedies. — When  the  attack  is  severe  and  confined  to  the 
fore-feet,  Youatt  recommends  removing  the  shoe  and  paring 
the  hoof  as  much  as  possible,  taking  four  quarts  of  blood  from 
each  toe,  placing  the  feet  in  warm  water,  and  afterwards  ap- 
plying soft  poultices  of  linseed  meal  to  the  whole  foot  and 
pastern.  If  this  is  inefl"ectual,  take  three  quarts  of  blood  from 
each  foot  the  succeeding  day.  It  may  then  be  necessary  to 
blister  the  foot  and  coronet.  The  animal  should  be  kept  on 
green  food  or  light  mashes,  and  allowed  to  run  on  grass  with- 
out labor.  An  eff"ectual  cure  has  followed  from  taking  off 
the  shoe,  and  applying  lard,  raised  to  the  boiling  point,  to 
every  part  of  the  foot. 

Poison 

From  weeds,  sometimes  gives  to  horses  ulcerated  tongues 
and  Ups,  and  swollen  legs  and  sheath.     If  there  be  much  in- 


EPIDEMICS    AMONG    HORSES,    ETC  176 

flammation,  bleeding  should  be  resorted  to,  then  give  daily- 
bran  mashes,  with  Glauber  salts  in  doses  of  ^  to  1^  pounds, 
according  to  the  size  of  the  horse,  with  half  a  teaspoonful  of 
saltpetre.  ^\^ashing  the  ulcerated  parts  with  warm  soap- 
suds, copperas,  and  sugar-of-lead  may  follow. 

Epidemics  among  Horses, 

Sometimes  occur,  producing  great  mortality.  One  of  these 
was  prevalent  in  the  neighborhood  of  New  York,  in  1846, 
termed  a  malarious  congestive  fever,  staggers,  or  apoplexy, 
which  destroyed  many  valuable  animals.  Tt  occurred  during 
the  heat  of  summer,  and  was  principally  confined  to  such  as 
were  at  pasture.  By  many  it  was  attributed  to  excessive  heat 
and  exposure  at  night.  The  animals  that  were  opened,  ap- 
peared sound  in  all  respects  excepting  the  brain,  which  exhib- 
ited one  mass  of  clotted  blood. 

The  remedy  found  to  be  the  most  effectual,  consisted  in  ta- 
king about  one  quart  of  blood  from  the  head,  swathing  it  with 
cloths  saturated  with  cold  water,  and  giving  two  drachms  daily 
of  calomel.     The  horse  should  be  kept  in  a  cool  stable. 

A  similar  disease  in  Spain  is  cured  by  copious  bleeding,  and 
swathing  the  head  in  blankets  constantly  wet  with  hot  water. 

Inflammation  of  the  Eyes. 

Shut  up  in  a  dark  stable,  and  feed  on  fresh-cut  grass  and 
bran  mashes.  Bleed  freely  from  the  mouth,  and  give  Ij  lbs. 
Glauber  salts,  2  drachms  nitre,  and  15  grains  tartarized  antimo- 
ny, dissolved  in  a  bucket  of  water,  which  the  animal  will  drink 
when  thirsty.  This  to  be  repeated  daily  till  purging  is  effect- 
ed. If  it  fails,  bleed  from  the  large  veins  just  below  the  eye, 
taking  15  to  20  ounces  of  blood. — {^Dr.  Comphell.) 

The  Sting  of  Hornets, 

Bees,  or  snakes,  may  be  relieved  by  immediate  external  ap- 
plication of  strong  spirits  of  hartshorn :  salt  and  vinegar  are 
also  good. 

For  Sprains, 

Take  a  mixture  of  one  ounce  sweet  oil,  four  ounces  spirits 
of  hartshorn,  half  an  ounce  oil  of  thyme,  and  rub  with  it  fre- 
quently. The  remedies  mentioned  below  are  also  effectual 
for  sprains. 


176  DOMESTIC    ANIMALS. 

For  a  Bruise  or  Blow. 

Apply  hot  water  a  long  time  with  wet  cloths.  Beef  brine 
is  an  excellent  lotion  for  both  sprains  and  bruises.  A  veteran 
among  horses,  claims,  that  it  will  almost  set  a  joint  or  heal  a 
fracture.     Wormwood  or  tansy  lotions  are  also  good. 

Fistula. 

This  is  frequently  cured  by  repeated  applications  of  salt. 

Wounds 

Should  be  washed  twice  a  day  with  clean,  soft  water,  or 
with  a  httle  Castile  soap  added,  and  then  rub  with  whale-oil. 
This  answers  for  all  seasons,  keeps  off  flies,  restores  the  hair, 
and  of  the  original  color. 

Galls, 

Or  wounds  on  the  back  from  the  saddle,  are  most  effectually 
healed  by  white-lead,  moistened  with  sweet-oil  or  milk.  The 
saddle  ought  always  to  fit  easily  and  be  well  padded,  and  it 
should  be  taken  off  and  the  animal's  back  washed  at  every 
baiting. 

Shoeing. 

This  is  an  important  operation,  and  should  never  be  at- 
tempted but  imder  the  supervision  of  an  experienced  person ; 
nor  ought  the  shoes  to  remain  so  long  as  to  produce  contrac- 
tion of  the  hoof,  which  is  followed  by  lameness  and  corns. 
They  should  be  reset  as  often  as  every  five  or  six  weeks. 

Contraction  of  tlie  Foot. 

This  is  also  caused  by  standing  on  the  dry  stable  for  some 
days.  In  this  case,  the  hoof  should  be  stopped  with  fresh 
cow-manm-e  and  clay,  or  with  a  thick  felt,  soaked  in  water, 
and  cut  to  suit  the  foot.  This  is  also  a  good  apphcation  over 
night,  for  horses  that  have  accomphshed  a  hard  day's  work 
on  a  dry  road. 

Litter. 

This  is  not  objectionable  to  the  feet,  if  clean  anc*  jot  too 
damp.  Some  suppose  this  the  cause  of  contraction,  but  it  is 
the  reverse.     It  is  besides  of  great  benefit  when  shook  out  for 


CORNS.  177 

A  bed,  by  inducmg  the  horse  to  rest  himself.     He  is  thus  en- 
abled to  do  more  work,  and  Avith  a  less  expenditure  of  food. 

Corns. 

In  the  angle  between  the  bars  and  the  quarters,  the  horn 
of  the  sole  has  sometimes  a  red  appearance,  and  is  more 
spongy  and  softer  than  at  any  other  part.  The  horse  flinches 
when  this  portion  of  the  horn  is  pressed  upon,  and  occasional 
or  permanent  lameness  is  produced.  This  disease  of  the  foot 
is  termed  coims  ;  bearing  this  resemblance  to  the  corn  of  the 
human  being,  that  it  is  produced  by  pressure,  and  is  a  cause 
of  lameness.  When  corns  are  neglected,  so  much  inflamma- 
tion is  produced  in  that  part  of  the  sensible  sole,  that  suppu- 
ration follows,  and  to  that,  quittor  succeeds,  and  the  matter 
either  undermines  the  horny  sole,  or  is  discharged  at  the 
coronet. 

Remedies. — The  cure  of  old  corns  is  difficult ;  for  as  all 
shoeing  has  some  tendency  to  produce  pressure  here,  the 
habit  of  throwing  out  this  diseased  horn  is  difficult  to  get  rid 
of  when  once  contracted  ;  recent  corns,  however,  will  yield  to 
good  shoeing.  The  flrit  thing  to  be  done  is  well  to  pare  out 
the  angle  between  the  crust  and  the  bars.  Two  objects  are 
answered  by  this  ;  the  extent  of  the  disease  wall  be  ascertained, 
and  one  cause  of  it  removed.  A  very  small  drawing-knife 
must  be  used  for  this  purpose.  The  corn  must  be  pared  out 
to  the  very  bottom,  taking  care  not  to  wound  the  sole.  It 
may  then  be  discovered  whether  there  is  any  eff'usion  of  blood 
or  matter  underneath.  If  this  is  suspected,  an  opening  must 
be  made  through  the  horn,  the  matter  evacuated,  the  separated 
horn  taken  away,  the  com^se  and  extent  of  the  sinuses  explored, 
and  introduce  into  them  a  saturated  solution  of  sulphate  of  zinc, 
by  means  of  a  small  syringe.  Place  over  this  dressing  the 
common  cataplasm,  or  the  turpentine  ointment,  and  renew  the 
apphcation  every  twenty-four  hours.  Three  or  four  such  ap- 
plications complete  a  cure. 

Should  there  be  no  collection  of  fluid,  the  butyr  of  antimony 
should  be  applied  over  the  whole  extent  of  the  corn,  after  the 
horn  has  been  thinned  as  closely  as  possible.  The  object  of 
this  is  to  stimulate  the  sole  to  throw  out  more  healthy  horn. 
In  bad  cases,  a  bar-shoe  may  be  put  on,  so  chambered  that 
there  shall  be  no  pressure  on  the  diseased  part.  This  may  be 
worn  for  one  or  two  shoeings,  but  not  constantly,  for  there  are 
few  frogs  that  would  bear  the  constant  pressure  of  the  bar- 


178  DOMESTIC    ANIMALS. 

slioe ;  and  the  want  of  pressure  on  the  heel,  generally  occa- 
sioned by  their  use,  would  produce  a  softened  and  bulbous 
state  of  the  heels,  that  Avould  of  itself  be  an  inevitable  source 
of  lameness.  Turning  out  to  grass,  after  the  horn  is  a  little 
grown,  first  with  a  bar-shoe,  and  afterwards  with  the  shoe 
fettered  on  one  side,  or  with  tips,  will  often  be  serviceable.  A 
horse  that  has  once  had  corns  to  any  considerable  extent 
should,  at  every  shoeing,  have  the  seat  of  corn  well  pared  out, 
and  the  butyr  of  antimony  applied. 

An  Over-reach 

Is  a  tread  upon  the  heel  of  the  corone-t  of  the  fore  foot,  by 
the  shoe  of  the  corresponding  hind  foot,  and  either  inflicted  by 
the  toe,  or  by  the  inner  edge  of  the  inside  of  the  shoe. 

The  preventive  treatment  is  the  bevelling,  or  rounding  ofiF  of 
the  inside  edge  or  rim  of  the  hind  shoes. 

The  cure  is  the  cutting  away  of  the  loose  parts,  the  applica- 
tion of  Friar's  balsam,  and  protection  from  the  dirt. 

Forging,  or  Clicking, 

"  Is  a  singular  species  of  over-reaching.  The  horse,  in  the 
act  of  trotting,  strikes  the  toes  of  the  hind  shoes  against  the 
fore  Oiae.  This  noise  of  the  clicking  is  unpleasant,  and  the 
trick  or  habit  is  not  altogether  free  from  danger.  It  is  most 
frequent  in  young  horses,  and  is  attributable  to  too  great  ac- 
tivity, or  length  of  stride  in  the  hind  legs. 

Remedies. — The  rider  may  do  something  by  keeping  the 
head  of  the  horse  well  up ;  but  the  smith  may  eflfect  more  by 
making  the  hind  shoes  of  clicking  horses  short  in  the  toe,  and 
having  the  web  broad.  When  they  are  too  long,  they  are  apt 
to  be  torn  off;  when  too  narrow,  the  hind  foot  may  bruise 
the  sole  of  the  fore  one,  or  may  be  locked  fast  between  the 
branches  of  the  fore  shoe." — Youatt. 

The  Bearing  Rein 

Is  a  matter  oi  much  controversy ;  some  claiming  that  it 
should  be  entirely  abolished,  while  others  as  strenuously  con- 
tend for  its  almost  universal  use.  Nimrod,  who  is  deemed 
perfectly  competent  authority,  insists  on  its  use  with  fast  road- 
ster and  coach-horses.  With  team-horses,  it  may  generally 
be  dispensed  with,  and  always  should  be  in  ascending  hills, 
as'  it  materially  diminishes  the  ^  capacity  for  exertion.     The 


THE    BEARING   REIN. 


179 


Cault  in  its  use  is  its  excessive  tightness,  and  when  standing, 
tb.e  Iio;se  ought  nevei  to  be  tormented  with  it. 


Saf-ty  Rein  illustrated. 

Directions  for  use  of  Safety  Rein. — In  putting  on  the  rein 
for  a  gig,  keep  the  buckle  to  the  left  hand,  or  near  side ;  that 
will  place  the  loop,  which  is  on  the  middle  of  the  rein,  below 
the  hook  or  head  of  the  bridle,  which  prevents  it  from  being 
thrown  out  by  the  motion  of  the  horse's  head.  For  a  pair  of 
horses,  keep  the  two  short  chapes  outmost,  and  the  loops  on  the 
middle  downward.  For  saddle,  keep  the  buckle  to  the  left  hand. 

When  the  rein  is  used  either  for  running,  rearing,  kicking, 
or  going  backward,  it  should  be  applied  suddenly  with  a  strong 
arm,  keeping  up  the  pressure  until  the  horse  is  still ;  it  should 
then  be  relieved  suddenly,  at  the  same  time  motioning  the  horse 
to  go  on.  If  he  is  only  a  runaway  he  will  obey  it  at  once, 
such  horses  being  generally  of  a  willing,  good  temper.  After 
the  horse  has  been  a  few  times  firmly  gripped  with  it,  use  it 
occasionally,  instead  of  the  bit-rein,  to  stop  him  on  ordinary 
occasions ;  this  will  remind  the  horse  of  his  subjection,  and  will 
accustom  the  rider  or  driver  to  the  ready  and  accurate  use  of 
it  in  case  of  an  emergency. 

The  Bit 

Is  a  frequent  cause  of  injury  to  the  mouth  of  the  hors^ 


180 


DOMESTIC    ANIMALS. 


fretting  and  teasing  him,  and  in  many  cases  inducing  perma- 
nent injury  and  viciousness.  It  should  never  be  made  annoy- 
ing to  the  horse  beyond  the  absolute  necessity  for  his  proper 
restraint. 

An  Unruly  Stnd  may  be  controlled 

By  passing  the  rein  from  the  ring  on  the  ojff-side  over  the 
head  and  through  the  left  ring.  This  gives  a  purchase  to  the 
groom  which  the  horse  cannot  resist. 

Blinds 

Have  for  a  long  time  been  fashionable,  but  in  few  cases 
are  necessary,  while  in  nearly  all  they  are  decidedly  injurious. 


Fig.Sl 


The  Crib  Biter. 


This  small  instrument  is 
made  entirely  of  iron,  and 
riveted  firmly  to  the  head-stall. 
It  answers  the  threefold  pur- 
pose, to  prevent  biting,  crib- 
biting,  and  wind-sucking.  All 
of  the  foreofoina:  are  bad  hab- 
its  for  horses,  for  which  there 
is  no  effectual  cure,  but  in 
adopting  the  use  of  the  above 
implement. 


The  Crib  Biter. 


The  Stable 


Is  an  important  matter  connected  with  the  proper  manage- 
ment of  horses.  This  should  be  as  much  as  possible  of  a 
uniform  temperature,  cool  in  summer,  warm  in  Avinter,  and  al- 
ways clean,  dry,  and  well-v^entilated.  But  no  air  must  be 
allowed  to  blow  directly  upon  the  animal.  The  horse  is  a  na- 
tive of  a  warm  climate,  and  ought  to  be  well  protected  against 
cold.  The  stable  should  be  neither  too  hght  nor  too  dark,  nor 
must  the  light  ever  be  admitted  before  the  eye  of  the  horse. 
For  judicious  and  extended  arrangement  of  stables,  and  man- 
agement of  horses,  the  inquhing  reader  is  referred  to  Stewart' i 
Stable  JEconomy. 


THE    ASS.  181 


CHAPTER  VI. 

THE  ASS,  THE   MULE,  AND  THE   COMPARATIVE   LABOR 
OF  WORKING  ANIMALS. 


THE  ASS 

Is  a  native  of  Arabia,  Persia,  and  the  central  parts  of  Asia 
and  Africa.  Like  the  horse,  he  goes  in  troops  and  displays 
great  natural  sagacity,  activity,  and  courage.  Job  says,  "  He 
scorneth  the  multitude  of  the  city,  neither  regardeth  the  cry- 
ing of  the  driver."  Like  the  horse,  too,  he  has  from  time  im- 
memorial been  tamed,  and  become  the  faithful  servant  of  man ; 
but  unlike  him,  he  is  subject  to  few  maladies,  is  hardy  and 
enduring,  and  subsists  and  even  thrives  on  coarse  and  scanty 
forage.  Thus  Job  says  of  his  natural  haunts,  "  Whose  house 
T  have  made  the  wilderness,  and  the  harren  land  his  dvv^ellings ; 
^he  range  of  the  mountains  is  his  pasture,  and  he  searcheth 
after  every  green  tiling^  Xenophon,  in  his  Anabasis,  a  thou- 
sand years  later,  says  of  one  of  the  Asiatic  deserts  through 
which  he  passed  Aviih  the  army  of  Cyrus,  "  that  it  was  full  of 
wormwood;  if  any  other  kinds  of  shrubs  or  reeds  grew  there, 
they  had  all  an  aromatic  smell ;  but  no  trees  appeared.  Of 
wild  creatures,  the  most  numerous  are  wild  asses,  which  our 
horses  sometimes  chased ;  but  the  wild  asses  exceeded  them 
much  in  speed," 

Varieties. 

The  different  breeds  of  asses  are  supposed  to  be  quite 
as  numerous  as  those  of  the  horse.  Four  distinct  races  are 
mentioned  in  the  earliest  scriptures.  In  modern  times  we  find 
a  similar  diversity.  There  are  two  kinds  in  Persia,  the  largest 
a  slow,  heavy  brute,  used  only  for  burdens  ;  the  other  smaller 
and  more  spirited,  and  used  for  the  saddle.  In  Egypt,  a  con- 
siderable though  less  marked  difference  exists,  those  near  the 
Delta  being  inferior  to  those  which  are  bred  in  Upper  Egypt 
and  Nubia.  In  Spain,  a  difference  in  size  and  spirit  prevailsg 
greater  even  tha?i  in  Persia. 

16 


182  DOMESTIC    ANIMALS. 

The  Zebra  is  nearly  allied  in  size,  shape,  and  character  to 
the  wild  ass,  but  his  untameable  ferocity  has  hitherto  effectually 
bid  defiance,  alike  to  the  scourges  and  caresses,  the  frowns  and 
the  favors  of  man. 

Arabia  produces  some  of  the  most  spirited  and  hardy  asses, 
but  their  size,  hke  that  of  their  horses,  is  too  small  for  pur- 
poses of  the  greatest  utility.  The  Maltese  Jack  is  by  American 
breeders  deemed  the  choicest  animal  from  which  to  propagate. 
He  is  evidently  of  Arabian  descent,  and  possesses  all  the  good 
qualities  of  his  ancestry,  with  considerable  additional  size. 

We  have  several  vaiieties,  all  of  which  are  imported,  as 
there  are  no  natives  of  the  Western  Continent.  The  early  im- 
portations were  principally  made  from  the  Azores,  and  Cape 
de  Verd  Islands,  and  were  mostly  of  an  inferior  character.  A 
superior  Maltese  Jack  was  presented  to  Gen.  Washington,  in 
1787,  by  La  Fayette,  and  is  believed  to  be  the  first  ever  sent 
to  this  country.  Mr.  Custis  describes  him  as  of  moderate 
size,  clean-limbed,  possessing  great  activitj^,  the  fire  and 
ferocity  of  a  tiger,  of  a  dark  brown  and  nearly  black,  with  white 
belly  and  muzzle,  and  manageable  only  by  one  groom,  nor 
then  safely.  He  lived  to  a  great  age.  His  mules  were  all 
active,  spirited,  and  serviceable,  and  when  from  stout  mares, 
attained  considerable  size. 

A  Spanish  Jack  and  Jennet  were  also  presented  to  Washing- 
ton about  the  same  time,  by  the  King  of  Spain.  The  first  is 
characterized  by  the  same  authority,  as  a  huge,  ill-shapen 
animal,  nearly  16  hands  high,  very  large  head,  clumsy  limbs, 
and  to  all  appearance  little  calculated  for  active  service ;  he 
was  of  a  gray  color,  and  not  much  valued  for  his  mules, 
which  were  unwieldy  and  dull.  From  the  Maltese  Jack 
and  Spanish  Jennet,  which  approach  the  size  of  the  large 
Spanish  Jack,  was  bred  a  valuable  animal,  Compound,  which 
partook  of  all  the  good  qualities  of  the  sire,  Avith  the  weight 
of  the  dam.  From  him  descended  many  of  the  best  mules  of 
Mount  Vernon. 

Many  other  valuable  importations  followed  these  animals, 
and  it  is  beheved  we  have  for  many  years  had  as  fine  speci- 
mens of  the  ass  as  the  world  affords. 

Jennets,  or  she-asses,  are  used  among  us  principally  for 
breeding  Jacks,  and  of  course  are  not  numerous.  They  are 
sometimes,  though  seldom,  bred  to  the  horse.  It  is  difficult 
to  induce  the  horse  to  notice  them,  and  the  produce,  which  is 
called  a  hinni/,  is  less  hardy  and  useful  tlian  the  mule.  The 
milk   of  the  she-ass  is  lighter  and  more  digestible  than  that 


THE    MULE.  183 

of  any  other  animal,  and  in  former  times  was  in  great  request 
for  invalids. 

The  ass  is  occasionally  used  in  the  cart,  or  as  a  beast  of 
burden.  Such  as  are  employed  for  these  purposes  are 
generally  of  an  inferior  kind,  and  are  only  used  for  the  lightest 
work.  They  may  sometimes  be  seen  among  the  fishmongers 
and  small  vegetable  dealers  about  our  city  markets,  but  little 
larger  than  a  Newfoundland  dog  or  Shetland  pony,  trundling 
along  a  light  cart  with  a  wheelbarrow  load.  In  ancient  times 
they  have  been,  and  in  foreign  countries — even  at  the  present 
time,  they  are  extensively  used.  But  the  most  enlightened  of 
the  moderns  have  adopted  the  mule  as  the  proper  and  almost 
exclusive  substitute  for  the  ass;  and  it  would  show  a  still 
greater  intelligence  and  economy,  if  it  much  more  extensively 
took  the  place  of  the  horse. 


THE  MULE 

Is  the  hybrid  produced  by  the  ass  with  the  mare.  How 
early  this  animal  was  bred,  is  uncertain,  but  we  know  he  was 
irvhigh  repute  in  the  reign  of  David,  near  3,000  years  ago,  for 
he  Avas  rode  by  Absalom,  the  favorite  prince  of  Israel,  on  the 
field  of  battle.  They  have  from  time  immemorial  been  bred 
in  various  parts  of  the  East,  on  the  borders  of  the  Mediterra- 
nean, and  throughout  Spain,  Portugal,  and  other  countries, 
many  of  them  being  of  splendid  appearance  and  of  fine  quali- 
ties. In  these  countries,  they  are  frequently  used  by  the 
grandees  and  nobles,  and  indeed  by  royalty  itself;  and  how- 
ever much  they  may  be  undervalued  elsewhere,  when  they 
are  finely  bred  and  trained,  and  richly  caparisoned,  they  ex- 
hibit a  stateliness  and  bearing,  that  few  of  the  highest  bred 
horses  can  match. 

Breeding  Mules  in  the  United  States, 

Was  commenced  with  much  spirit  in  some  of  the  Kew 
England  states,  soon  after  the  American  revolution.  The 
object  was  not  to  breed  them  for  their  own  use,  but  only  as 
an  article  of  commerce.  They  were  at  first  shipped  exclusively 
to  the  West  Indies  ;  and  aftv^rwards  to  the  South  and  West, 
for  employment  in  the  various  work  of  the  plantation.  In- 
different animals,  both  as  sires  and  dams,  were  used  at  first, 
as  a»Y  thing  which  bose  the  name  of  mule,  then  commanded  a 


184  D031ESTIC    ANIMALS. 

ready  sale.  The  progeny  were  necessarily  inferior  brutes,  and 
viewed  with  almost  universal  derision ;  and  being  considered 
the  type  of  their  race,  a  prejudice  was  excited  against  them, 
which  more  than  half  a  century  has  not  been  sufficient  to 
dispel. 

Among  a  few  thinking  men  at  the  I^Torth,  they  have  been 
adopted  and  made  hig-hly  useful  in  the  various  duties  of  the 
farm.  They  have  been  largely  introduced  at  the  South  and 
West,  but  principally  in  the  slave  states,  where  the  manage- 
ment of  the  team  devolves  upon  the  ignorant  and  heedless. 
It  is  there,  and  in  other  and  hotter  climates,  that  the  superior 
merits  of  the  mule  over  the  horse  as  a  laboring  animal,  are 
peculiarly  manifest.  In  many  instances  they  are  indiflferently 
fed,  hardly  worked,  and  greatly  neglected  by  their  drivers  ; 
yet  they  sustain  themselves  for  years,  in  defiance  of  usage  that 
would  annihilate  two  generations  of  horses.  Their  powers 
have  been  largely  increased  and  their  merits  improved,  by  the 
introduction  of  some  of  the  best  Maltese  and  Spanish  Jacks, 
and  the  use  of  large,  blood  mares.  The  propriety  of  this 
course  is  seen  in  the  value  of  the  product ;  for  while  some  of 
the  inferior'  are  unsaleable  at  $50,  others  of  the  same  age,  and 
reared  under  the  same  circumstances  of  keep  and  condition, 
could  not  be  purchased  for  $150. 

The  Breeding,  Rearing,  and  Management  of  Ulules 

Is  similar  to  that  of  colts.  They  will  be  found,  equally  with 
horses,  to  repay  generous  keep  and  attention,  by  their  in- 
creased and  rapid  growth.  But  they  should  not  be  pampered 
by  high  feed,  as  it  not  only  has  a  tendency  to  produce  disease, 
but  to  form  habits  of  fastidiousness,  which  materially  lessens 
their  economical  feeding  in  after  life.  The  diseases  to  which 
mules  are  subjected,  (which  are  always  few,  and  if  properly 
managed  will  seldom  or  ever  occur,)  require  a  treatment  like 
that  of  horses. 

The  hreeding  from  mules  has  sometimes  been  questioned, 
but  it  has  been  demonstrated  in  several  instances.  Neither 
the  sexual  development  nor  propensities  are  vfanting,  but  they 
are  seldom  indulged  with  effect.  Mr.  Kilby,  of  Virginia,  states 
in  the  Farmer's  Register,  that  a  mare  mule  brought  two  colts 
from  a  young  horse,  which  they  closely  resembled.  The  first 
was  a  male,  and  died,  apparently  with  staggers,  which  no 
treatment  could  arrest,  at  six  months  old.  The  second  was  a 
fenaale,  16  months  vounger  than  the  first,  marked  like  the 


ADVANTAGES    OF    MULE    OVER    HORSE    L  VBOR.         185 

sire,  being  jet-black,  excepting  a  white  foot  and  star  in  tbe 
forehead,  and  died  at  a  year  old,  after  two  days'  illness,  not- 
withstanding the  utmost  care  was  bestowed  upon  it.  Suc- 
cessful propagation  of  this  hybrid,  however,  beyond  the  first 
cross,  seems  to  be  incompatible  with  the  fixed  laws  of  nature. 
With  a  view  of  encouraging  the  substitution  of  mules  for 
a  part  of  the  horses  now  employed  in  American  husbandry, 
we  give  the  following  testimony  from  experienced  individuals, 
of  great  intelhgence  and  careful  observation. 


ADVANTAGES  OF  MULE  OVER  HORSE  LABOR. 

The  official  report  of  an  agricultural  committee  in  South 
Carohna,  in  1824,  says  : — "  The  annual  expense  of  keeping  a 
horse  is  equal  to  his  value.  A  horse  at  four  years  old  would 
not  often  bring  more  than  his  cost.  Two  mules  can  be  raised 
at  less  expense  than  one  horse.  The  mule  is  fit  for  service 
earlier,  and  if  of  sufficient  size,  will  perform  as  much  labor  as 
the  horse  ;  and  if  attended  to  when  first  put  to  work,  his  gait 
and  habits  may  be  formed  to  suit  the  owner." 

Mr.  Pomeroy,  who  used  them  near  Boston  for  30  years, 
and  to  such  an  extent  as  to  have  had  more  labor  performed 
by  them  probably  than  any  person  in  'New  England,  says  : — 
"  I  am  convinced  the  small  breed  of  mules  will  consume  less 
in  proportion  to  the  labor  they  are  capable  of  performing  than 
the  larger  race,  but  I  shall  confine  myself  to  the  latter  in  my 
comparison,  such  as  stand  14^  to  16  hands,  and  are  capable 
of  performing  any  work  a  horse  is  usually  put  to.  From  re- 
peated experiments,  I  have  found  that  three  mules  of  this 
description,  which  were  constantly  at  work,  consumed  about 
the  same  quantity  of  hay,  and  only  one-fourth  the  provender, 
which  was  given  to  two  middling-size  coach-horses,  only 
moderately  worked.  I  am  satisfied  a  large-sized  mule  will  not 
consume  more  than  three-fifths  to  two-thirds  the  fo^d  to  keep 
him  in  good  order,  that  will  be  necessary  for  a  horse  perform- 
ing the  same  labor.  The  expense  of  shoeing  a  mule  the  year 
round,  does  not  exceed  one-tliird  that  of  the  horse,  his  hoofs 
being  harder,  more  horny,  and  so  slow  in  their  growth,  that 
shoes  require  no  removal,  and  hold  on  till  worn  out ;  and  the 
wear  from  the  lightness  of  the  animal  is  much  less. 

Mules  have  been  lost  by  feeding  on  cut  straw  and  corn 
meal ;  in  no  other  instance  have  I  known  disease  in  them,  ex- 
cept by  inflammation  of  the  intestines,  caused  bv  the  grossest 

16* 


186  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS. 

exposure  to  cold  and  wet,  and  excessive  drinking  cold  water, 
after  severe  labor,  and  while  in  a  high  state  of  perspira- 
tion. It  is  not  improbable  a  farmer  may  work  the  same  team 
of  mules  for  twenty  years,  without  having  a  farrier's  bill  pre- 
sented to  him. 

In  my  experience  of  thirty  years,  I  have  never  found  but 
one  mule  inclined  to  be  vicious,  and  he  might  have  been  easily 
subdued  while  young.  I  have  always  found  them  truer  pullers 
and  quicker  travellers,  with  a  load,  than  horses.  Their  vision 
and  hearing  are  much  more  accurate.  I  have  used  them  in 
my  family  carriage,  in  a  gig,  and  under  the  saddle  ;  and  have 
never  known  one  to  start  or  run  from  any  object  or  noise,  a 
fault  in  the  horse,  that  continually  causes  the  maiming  and 
death  of  numerous  human  beings. 

The  mule  is  more  steady  in  his  draught,  and  less  likely  to 
waste  his  strength  than  the  horse,  hence  more  suitable  to 
work  with  oxen ;  and  as  he  walks  faster,  he  will  habituate  them 
to  a  faster  gait.  In  plowing  among  crops,  his  feet  being  small 
and  following  each  other  so  much  more  in  a  line,  he  seldom 
treads  down  the  ridges  or  crops.  The  facilit}^  of  instructing 
him  to  obey  imphcitly  the  voice  of  the  driver  is  astonishing. 
The  best  plowed  tillage  land  I  ever  saw,  I  have  had  perform- 
ed by  two  mules  tandem,  without  lines  or  driver.  The  mule 
is  capable  of  enduring  labor  in  a  temperature  of  heat  that 
would  be  destructive  to  a  horse. 

Although  a  large  mule  will  consume  something  over  one- 
half  the  food  of  a  horse,  yet  the  saving  in  shoeing,  farrying, 
and  insurance  against  diseases  and  accidents,  will  amount  to  at 
least  one-half.  In  addition,  the  owner  may  rely  with  tolerable 
certainty  on  the  continuance  of  his  mule  capital  for  thirty 
years  ;  whereas  the  horse  owner  must,  at  the  end  of'  fifteen 
years,  look  to  his  crops,  his  acres,  or  a  bank  for  the  renewal 
of  his.  The  longevity  of  a  mule  is  so  proverbial,  that  a  pur- 
cha»ser  seldom  inquires  his  age.  Pliny  mentions  one  80  years 
old  ;  and  Dr.  Rees,  two  in  England,  that  reached  the  age  of 
10.  I  saw  one  performing  his  labor  in  a  cane-mill  in  the 
West  Indies,  which  the  owner  assured  me  was  40  years  old. 
I  have  now  a  mare-mule  25  years  old,  that  I  have  had  in  con- 
stant work  for  21  years.  She  has  often  within  a  year  taken  a 
ton  weight  in  a  wagon  to  Boston,  five  miles,  and  manifests  no 
diminution  of  her  powers.  A  neighbor  has  one  28  years  old, 
which  he  would  not  exchange  for  any  horse  in  the  country. 
One  iu  Maryland,  35  years  old,  is  now  as  capable  of  labor  as 
at  any  f  )rmer  period." 


ADVANTAGES   OF  MULE  OVER  IIORSE  LABOR.  187 

Mr.  Hood  of  Maryland,  in  the  American  Farmer,  estimates 
the  annual  expense  of  a  horse  for  12  months,  at  $44,  and 
that  of  a  mule  at  $22,  just  half  price,  and  his  working  age  at 
more  than  twice  that  of  the  horse,  and  that  too  after  30  yeais' 
experience  in  keeping  both. 

A  correspondent  of  the  Baltimore  Patriot,  asserts  that 
**  Col.  John  E.  Howard  had  a  pair  of  mules  that  worked  30 
years,  after  which  they  were  sold  to  a  carter  in  the  city,  and 
performed  hard  service  for  several  years  longer.  Many  mules 
25  years  old,  and  now  in  this  country,  perform  well.  Many 
have  been  at  hard  work  for  12  or  15  years,  and  would  now 
sell  for  $100  each.  They  are  not  subject  to  the  colt's  ail- 
ments, the  glanders,  heaves,  yellow-water,  and  colic,  like 
horses ;  and  seldom  are  afflicted  with  spavin,  ringbones,  or 
bots  ;  and  they  will  not  founder." 

General  Shelby  says,  "he  has  known  mules  to  travel  12 
miles  within  the  hour  in  light  harness,  and  has  himself  driven 
a  pair  45  miles  in  six  hours,  stopping  an  hour  by  the  way." 
Four  match  mules  have  been  sold  in  this  country  for  $1,000. 
They  were  of  course  superior  animals,  and  made  elegant 
coach-horses.  These  animals  were  driven  80  miles  in  a  day 
without  injury;  and  they  proved  a  first-rate  team  for  many 
years. 

Mr.  Ellicott,  of  the  Patuxent  Furnaces,  asserts  that,  "  out 
of  about  100  mules  at  the  works,  we  have  not  lost  on  an 
average  one  in  two  years.  Bleeding  at  the  mouth  will  cure 
them  of  nearly  every  disease,  and  by  being  turned  out  on 
pasture,  they  will  recover  from  almost  every  accident.  I  do 
not  recollect  we  have  ever  had  a  wind-broken  one.  They 
are  scarcely  ever  defective  in  the  hoof,  and  though  kept 
shod,  it  is  not  as  important  as  with  the  horse.  Their  skin  is 
tougher  than  that  of  the  horse,  consequently  they  are  not  as 
much  worried  by  flies,  nor  do  they  suffer  so  much  with  the 
heat  of  summer." 

To  the  foregoing  testimony  may  be  added  that  of  the  late 
Judge  Hinckley  of  Massachusetts ;  a  shrewd  and  close  ob- 
server through  a  long  life  of  84  years.  He  bred  mules  at  an 
early  day,  and  always  kept  a  team  of  them  for  his  farm  work, 
much  preferring  them  to  horses  for  this  purpose,  after  an  ex- 
perience of  50  years.  He  had  a  pair  nearly  30  years  old, 
which,  with  light  pasturage  in  summer,  and  with  a  moderate 
supply  of  hay  with  little  grain  in  winter,  and  no  grooming, 
performed  all  the  drudgery,  though  he  kept  his  stable  fuU  of 
horses    besides.      They   outlived    successive    generations   of 


188  DOMESTIC    ANIMALS. 

horses,  and  though  the  latter  were  often  sick  and  out  of  con- 
dition, the  mules  never  were.  One  frorn  his  stock,  4  5  years 
old,  was  sold  for  the  same  price  paid  for  a  lot  of  young 
mules,  being  at  that  mature  age  perfectly  able  to  perform  his 
full  share  of  labor. 

For  the  caravans  that  pass  over  the  almost  inaccessible 
ranges  which  form  the  continuation  of  the  Rocky  Mountains, 
and  the  extensive  arid  plains  that  lie  between  and  west  of 
them,  on  the  route  from  Santa  Fe  to  California,  mules  are  the 
only  beasts  of  burden  used  in  these  exhausting  and  perilous 
adventures.  Their  value  may  be  estimated  from  the  compar- 
ative prices  of  mules  and  horses  ;  for  while  a  good  horse  may 
be  bought  for  $10  to  $20,  a  good  mule  is  worth  $50  to  $75. 

Dr.  Lyman,  who  recently  passed  through  those  regions,  in- 
brms  us  that  their  caravan  left  Santa  Fe  with  about  150  mules, 
15  or  20  horses,  all  beasts  of  burden,  and  two  choice  blood- 
norses,  which  were  led  and  treated  with  peculiar  care.  On 
the  route,  all  the  working-horses  died  from  exhaustion  and  suf- 
fering ;  the  two  bloods  that  had  been  so  carefully  attended, 
but  just  survived  ;  yet  of  the  whole  number  of  mules  but  8 
or  10  gave  out.  A  mule  36  years  of  age  was  as  stronp;,  en- 
during, and  performed  as  hard  labor,  as  any  one  in  the  Dara- 
van.  When  thirst  compelled  them  to  resort  for  successive 
days  to  the  saline  waters,  which  are  the  only  ones  fmiiished 
by  those  sterile  plains,  the  horses  were  at  once  severely,  and 
not  unfrequently  fatally  affected  ;  while  the  mules,  though  suf- 
fering greatly  from  the  change,  yet  seldom  were  so  much  in- 
jured as  to  require  any  remission  of  their  labor. 

The  mules  sent  to  the  Mexican  possessions  from  our  west- 
ern states,  Missouri,  Tennessee,  and  Kentucky,  are  considered 
of  much  more  value  than  such  as  are  bred  from  the  native 
(usually  wild)  mares.  The  difference  probably  arises,  in  part, 
from  the  ]\Iexicans  using  jacks  so  inferior  to  most  of  the  stock 
animals  used  by  the  citizens  of  those  states. 

Mare  mules  are  estimated  in  those  regions  at  one -third  more 
than  horse  mules.  The  reason  assigned  for  this  is,  that  after 
a  day's  journey  of  excessive  fatigue,  there  is  a  larger  quantity 
of  blood  secreted  in  the  bladder,  which  the  female,  owing  to 
her  larger  passage,  voids  at  once,  and  without  much  apparent 
suffering,  while  the  male  does  not  get  rid  of  it,  frequently,  till 
after  an  hour  of  considerable  pain.  The  effect  of  this  diflfer- 
ence  is  seen  in  the  loss  of  flesh  and  strength  m  the  male  to  aa 
extent  far  beyond  that  of  the  female. 
■  The  method  of  reducing  refractory  imdes  in  the  northern  Hex- 


THE    MULE.  I  89 

ican  possessions,  is  for  the  person  to  grasp  theni  firmly  by  the 
ears,  while  another  whips  them  severely  on  the  fore-legs  and 
belly. 

Estimated  annual  saving  to  Hie  United  States  from  the  em- 
'ployment  of  mules  in  the  'place  of  horses. — To  sum  up  the  ad- 
vantages of  working  mules  over  horses,  we  shall  have  as 
advantages:  1.  They  are  m'ore  easily,  surely,  and  cheaply 
raised.  2.  They  are  maintained,  after  commencing  work,  for 
much  less  than  the  cost  of  keeping  horses.  3.  They  are  not 
subject  to  many  of  the  diseases  of  the  horse,  and  to  others 
only  in  a  mitigated  degree,  and  even  these  are  easily  cured  in 
the  mule.  4.  They  attain  a  greater  age,  and  their  average 
working  years  are  probably  twice  that  of  the  horse. 

In  1840,  there  were  reported  to'  be  4,335,669  horses  and 
mules  in  the  Union,  no  discrimination  having  been  made  be- 
tween them.  Suppose  the  total  number  at  tlie  present  time  is 
4,650,000,  and  that  of  these  650,000  are  mules.  If  we  de- 
duct one-fourth,  supposed  to  be  required  for  the  purposes  of 
breed,  fancy-horses,  &c.,  we  shall  have  3,000,000  horses, 
whose  places  may  be  equally  well  supplied  by  the  same  num- 
ber of  mules.  We  have  seen  tliat  Mr.  Hood,  of  Maryland, 
estimates  the  expense  of  a  working  horse  at  $44  per  annum, 
(not  an  over  estimate  for  the  Atlantic  states,)  while  that  of  the 
mule  is  |22.  The  difference  is  $22,  which  it  is  proper  to  re- 
duce to  meet  the  much  lower  rate  of  keeping  at  the  West.  If 
we  put  the  difference  at  $10,  we  shall  find  the  saving  in  the 
keep,  shoeing,  farriery,  &c.,  by  substituting  mules  for  the 
3,000,000  horses  that  can  be  dispensed  with,  will  be $30,000,000 
per  annum.     But  this  is  not  all. 

The  working  age  of  the  horse  will  not  exceed  an  average  of 
eight  years,  while  that  of  the  mule  is  probably  over  sixteen. 
To  the  difference  of  keep,  then,  must  be  added  the  annual 
waste  of  the  capital  invested  in  the  animal.  A  mule  is  more 
cheaply  raised  to  working  age  than  a  horse,  but  allowing  them 
to  cost  equally,  we  shall  have  the  horse  exhausting  one- eighth 
of  his  capital  annually  for  his  decay,  when  the  mule  is  using 
up  but  one-sixteenth ;  and  if  we  allow  $48  as  the  first  cost  of 
both  animals,  we  shall  find  the  horse  wasting  $6  annually  for 
this  item,  while  the  mule  deteriorates  but  $3,  making  an  addi- 
tional item  of  $9,000,000.  This  will  give  an  aggregate  of 
^39,000,000,  as  the  annual  saving  to  the  United  States  by 
substituting  good  mules  for  three-fourths  of  the  horses  now 
used  in  this  country.  When  will  our  farmers  have  the  good 
sense  to  make  this  change  ?     It  may  be  fairly  answered,  when 


190  DOMESTIC    ANIMALS. 

they  shall  prefer  utility,  interest,  and  a  just  taste,  to  a  dis- 
eased fancy ;  for  though  we  admit  the  superiority  in  apjiear- 
ance  of  the  race  of  horses  over  mules,  we  deny  that  a  bad 
horse  looks  better  or  even  as  well  as  a  good  mule ;  and  with 
the  same  keep  and  attention,  a  good  mule  will  outwork  and 
outlook  most  horses  of  any  breed. 

The  comparative  Economy  of  Horse  and  Ox  Labor. 

This  is  a  question  which  has  been  often  discussed,  and  when 
with  candor,  the  conclusion  has  generally  been  in  favor  of  ox- 
labor.  The  different  employments,  the  variety  of  situation, 
the  season,  and  the  kind  of  stock  reared  on  the  farm,  are  all 
questions  which  should  be  fully  considered  in  arriving  at  their 
true  comparative  advantages.  Most  farmers  would  find  it  for 
their  interest  to  keep  teams  of  each,  where  there  is  employ- 
ment for  more  than  one  ;  or  if  this  be  not  the  case,  the  pref- 
erence should  be  given  to  that  which  is  best  suited  in  all  re- 
spects to  their  particular  position. 

If  work  upon  the  road  is  required,  a  horse  team  will  gener> 
ally  be  best.  Their  superiority  will  consist  principally  in  their 
greater  speed  ;  for  even  vv^ith  a  heavy  load,  they  will  be  able  to 
trot  occasionally,  and  when  driven  without  it,  they  may  in- 
crease their  pace  to  nearly  double  the  natural  gait  of  the  ox. 
This  will  amount  to  a  large  annual  saving  in  the  time  of  the 
driver  when  steadily  employed.  The  same  is  true  when  re- 
moving manures  or  crops  on  the  farm  to  remote  distances, 
over  a  smooth  surface,  which  admits  of  trotting  with  the  empty 
wagon.  Harrowing  ought  always  to  be  done  with  a  quick 
team,  as  a  violent  stroke  of  the  teeth  breaks  the  clods  and 
pulverizes  the  earth  much  better  than  when  slowly  dragged. 

But  we  should  assume  in  this  comparison,  that  oxen  shall 
not  only  be  well  adapted  to  their  work  by  their  natural  for- 
mation, like  the  Hereford,  the  Devon,  and  otliers  equally  good, 
but  also  that  they  be  Avell  trained,  well  managed,  accustomed 
to  quick  movements,  and  as  well  fed  and  looked  after  as 
horses.  We  shall  then  find  their  Ava!k  equal  to  a  quick  horse 
team,  and  that  in  this  case  the  horse  will  have  no  advantage 
over  the  ox  in  harrowing,.  For  plowing,  the  teams  are  on  a 
par,  as  a  good  ox  team  will  do  as  much  in  a  day  in  cool 
weather  as  horses. 

The  situation  of  the  farm  may  materially  affect  this  estimate. 
In  a  warm  climate,  horses,  and  more  especially  mules,  would 
be  more  serviceable  than  oxen,  as  they  are  capable  of  enduring 


COMPARATIVE  EC  JNOMY  OF  HORSE  AND  OX  LABOR.  191 

much  greater  heat  with  impunity.  If  the  farm  be  small  and 
convenient  to  market,  the  labor  may,  in  general,  be  best  ac- 
complished by  oxen,  as  little  travelling  will  be  required.  So, 
too,  if  the  land  be  stony  or  rough,  the  plowing  and  harrow- 
ing will  be  more  kindly  and  patiently  done  by  oxen  than  by 
spirited  horses.  Other  considerations  will  suggest  themselves 
as  affecting  the  comparative  economy  of  this  labor. 

The  time  ofivorl:  is  to  be  fully  considered.  If  much  and  heavy 
work  be  required  in  summer,  as  is  often  the  case  in  plowing 
extensive  wheat  farms,  horses  are  to  be  preferred  ;  yet  if  the 
ox-team  be  started  at  early  dawn,  and  worked  briskly  four  or 
j5ve  hours,  and  then  turned  out  to  rest  with  a  supply  of  suit- 
able food,  they  may  again  commence  when  the  extreme  heat 
has  abated,  and  accomplish  a  day's  work  that  few  horses  will 
exceed.  During  the  season  of  muddy  roads,  the  horse,  with 
his  broad,  compact  foot,  and  longer  leg,  has  a  decided  advan- 
tage over  the  ox.  If  the  ox  drav/s  by  the  yoke,  (which  on  the 
whole  is  the  best  mode,)  he  is  hable  to  a  sore  neck  when  work- 
ing in  wet  or  snowy  weather,  and  at  such  times  he  is  over- 
matched by  his  competitor. 

The  kind  of  stock  raised  on  the  farm  has  an  important  bear- 
ing on  this  question.  Some  farms  are  devoted  to  rearing 
horses,  and  some  exclusively  to  rearing  cattle.  These  occa- 
sionally remain  on  hand  after  the^/  are  fit  for  market,  from  the 
want  of  a  profitable  demand.  They  can  then  be  employed 
not  only  without  injury,  but  in  consequence  of  the  thorough 
training  thus  secured,  with  positive  benefit  to  their  future  value. 

Even  if  intended  for  the  shambles,  the  well- developed  ox 
may  advantageously  be  put  to  light  work  at  three,  after  which 
it  may  be  gradually  increased  till  he  is  six  or  eight,  and  during 
all  this  time  he  will  be  improving.  After  doing  an  early 
spring's  work,  he  n  ly  then  be  turned  on  to  good  pasture,  and 
if  followed  with  proper  stall-feeding,  he  will  in  tlie  latter  part 
of  the  winter  or  spring  yield  a  tender,  better-flavored,  and 
more  profitable  carcass,  than  can  be  procured  by  any  other 
mode  of  fattening. 

The  first  cost  of  oxen  is  less  than  that  of  horses,  and  they 
are  at  all  times  cheaply  reared  on  the  coarser  herbage  of  the 
farm.  The  expense  of  working-gear,  tackle,  and  shoeing,  is 
much  less  than  with  horses.  They  are  subject  to  fewer  dis- 
eases, and  these  are  more  Avithin  the  reach  of  ordinary  medi- 
cines. The  cost  of  food  is  also  less,  and  while  the  horse  is 
depreciating,  the  ox  is  increasing  in  value  till  eight  or  nin« 
years  oM. 


192  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS. 

Accidents  are  less  frequent  with  oxen,  from  their  slower 
movements ;  and  when  they  occur,  the  ox  may  be  turned  out 
to  fatten,  and  still  be  worth  as  much  for  this  purpose  as  for 
the  yoke.  A  permanent  injury  to  the  horse  is  perhaps  a  total 
loss  of  the  beast,  with  a  large  farrier's  bill  in  addition,  for 
which  there  is  nothing  to  liquidate  it  but  the  hide. 

The  small  farmer  can  make  out  a  most  ser^•iceable  team,  by 
putting  a  single  horse  before  a  yoke  of  cattle.  If  well  trained, 
they  will  soon  accommodate  themselves  to  each  other's  pace, 
and  work  as  advantageously  together  as  an  entire  team  of  either 
class  would  do  alone. 

Bulls  are  frequently  put  to  the  draught,  and  when  they 
have  not  other  services  that  fully  test  their  powers,  they  can- 
not be  better  employed.  Heifers  and  cows  are  sometimes 
worked,  but  hitherto  they  have  not  been  used  to  any  extent  in 
this  country.  In  the  absence  of  other  animals,  they  might 
perform  light  work  to  advantage,  but  severe  labor  would  stint 
their  growth  or  impair  their  milk  beyond  the  benefit  derived 
from  it.  The  simyed  heifer  is  an  exception  to  the  foregoing 
remark,  and  by  many  is  esteemed  even  more  useful  than  an 
ox  of  equal  weight. 

We  have  no  definite  statements  of  the  comparative  money 
value  of  the  labor  of  oxen  and  horses.  But  in  England  re- 
peated trials  have  been  made,  and  while  some  have  discovered 
no  advantage  in  the  employment  of  oxen  over  horses,  others 
have  proved  them  decidedly  superior.  One  Anglesey  farmer 
found  in  an  experience  of  three  years,  with  12  horses  and  20 
oxen,  which  accomplished  an  equal  amount  of  work,  that  he 
had  saved  by  the  latter,  $1150. 

The  foregoing  facts  prove  the  subject  to  be  one  of  sufficient 
importance,  to  justify  the  closest  investigation  of  every  farmer 
to  determine  for  himself  the  comparative  value  of  ox,  horse,  or 
mule  labor. 


CHAPTER   VII. 


SWINE. 


The  hog  is  a  cosmopolite  of  almost  every  zone,  though  his 
natural  haunts,  like  those  of  the  hippopotamus,  the  elephant, 
the  rhinoceros,  and  most  of  the  thick-skinned  animals,  are 


SWINE. 


103 


in  warm  climates.  They  are  most  abundant  in  China,  the 
East  Indies,  and  the  immense  range  of  islands  which  extends 
over  the  whole  Southern  and  Pacific  Oceans;  but  they  are 
also  numerous  throughout  Europe,  from  its  southern  coast  to 
the  Russian  dominions  within  the  Arctic. 

Fig.  32. 


The  Wild  Boar. 


In  the  United  States,  swine  have  been  an  object  of  attention 
since  its  earliest  settlement,  and  whenever  a  profitable  market 
could  be  found  for  pork  abroad,  it  has  been  exported  to  the 
full  extent  of  the  demand.  For  near  twenty  years  following 
the  commencement  of  the  general  European  wars,  soon  after  the 
organization  of  our  national  government,  it  was  a  comparatively 
large  article  of  commerce ;  but  from  that  time,  exports  have 
not  been  justified  to  any  extent,  till  within  the  last  two  years, 
since  which,  a  material  reduction  in  the  British  import  duty  on 
pork,  lard,  and  hams,  has  again  brought  it  up  as  a  prominent 
article  of  trade  with  that  country.  The  recent  use  which  has 
been'  made  of  the  carcass  in  converting  it  into  lard-oil,  has 
still  further  increased  its  consumption. 

S  .'.ne  are  reared  in  every  part  of  the  Union,  and  when 
17 


194  DOMESTIC    ANI-MALS. 

properly  managed,  always  at  a  fair  profit.  At  the  extreme 
North ;  in  the  neighborhood  of  large  markets ;  and  on  such 
of  the  Southern  plantations  as  are  particularly  suited  to  sugar 
or  rice,  they  should  not  be  raised  beyond  the  number  required 
for  the  consumption  of  the  coarse  or  refuse  food  produced. 
Swine  are  advantageously  kept  in  connection  with  a  dairy  or 
orchard,  as  with  little  additional  food  besides  what  is  thus 
afforded,  they  can  be  put  into  good  condition  for  the  butcher. 
But  it  is  on  the  rich  bottoms  and  other  lands  of  the  West, 
where  Indian  corn  is  raised  in  profusion,  and  at  small  expense, 
that  they  can  be  reared  in  the  greatest  numbers  and  yield  the 
largest  profit.  The  Sciota,  Miami,  Wabash,  Illinois,  and  other 
valleys,  and  extensive  tracts  in  Kentucky,  Tennessee,  Missouri, 
and  some  adjoining  states,  have  for  many  years  taken  the  lead 
in  the  production  of  swine  ;  and  it  is  probable  the  climate  and 
soil,  which  are  peculiarly  suited  to  their  rapid  growth,  as  well 
as  that  of  their  appropriate  food,  will  enable  them  forever  to 
remain  the  leading  pork-producers  of  the  North  American 
continent. 


Breeds  of  Swine. 

The  breeds  cultivated  in  this  country  are  numerous,  and  like 
our  native  cattle,  they  embrace  many  of  tlie  best,  and  a  few 
of  the  worst  to  be  found  among  the  species.  Great  attention 
has  for  many  years  been  paid  to  their  improvement  in  the 
Eastern  states,  and  nowhere  are  there  better  specimens  than  in 
many  of  their  yards.  This  spirit  has  rapidly  extended  West 
and  South  ;  and  among  most  of  the  intelligent  farmers  who 
make  them  a  leading  object  of  attention,  on  their  rich  corn 
grounds,  swine  have  attained  a  high  degree  of  excellence. 
This  does  not  consist  in  .he  introduction  and  perpetuity  of 
any  distinct  races,  so  much  as  in  the  breeding  up  to  a  desirable 
size  and  aptitude  for  fattening,  from  such  meritorious  individu- 
als of  any  breed,  or  their  crosses,  as  come  within  their  reach. 

Fig.  33,  represents  an  English  breed  of  hogs,  a  century  or 
more  ago :  though  coarse  and  slouch-eared,  it  is  yet  the  por- 
trait of  a  tolerable  hog,  and  far  before  many  of  the  swine  that 
still  maintain  their  ascendency  in  various  parts  of  the  European 
continent.  This  breed  is  nearly  extinct,  having  been  crossed 
successively  by  the  Chinese  and  other  good  breeds,  thus  di- 
minishing the  size  and  materially  improving  its  thrift  and  ten- 
dency to  fattening.  We  hav3  few  such  animals  in  the  United 
States,  though  we  have  man;  that  are  worse. 


BREEDS    QF    SWINE. 


195 


Fi>.  33. 


— — £^    oris   srf-ciHOM.  ^ 

Old  Enalish  Hoff. 


The  Byefield,  some  30  yeai's  ago,  was  a  valuable  hog  in  tlie 
Eastern  states,  and  did  much  good  among  the  species  gen- 
erally. They  are  white,  ^vith  fine  cuily  hair,  well  made  and 
compact,  moderate  in  size  and  length,  with  broad  backs,  and 
at  15  months  attaining  some  300  to  350  lbs.  net. 

The  Bedford  or  Wobuni  is  a  breed  originating  with  the 
Duke  of  Bedford,  on  his  estate  at  Woburn,  and  brought  to 
their  perfection,  probably,  by  judicious  crosses  of  the  China 
hog,  on  some  of  the  best  English  swine.  A  pair  was  sent  by 
the  duke  to  this  country,  as  a  present  to  Gen.  Washington, 
but  they  were  dishonestly  sold  by  the  messenger  in  Maryland, 
in  which  state  and  Pennsylvania  they  were  productive  of  much 
good  at  an  early  day,  by  their  extensive  distribution  through 
different  states.  Several  other  importations  of  this  breed  have 
been  made  at  various  times,  and  especially  by  the  spirited 
masters  of  the  Liverpool  packet  ships,  in  the  neighborhood  of 
New  York.  They  are  a  large,  spotted  animal,  well  made,  and 
inclining  to  early  maturity  and  fattening.     They  are  an  ex* 


196 


DOMESTIC    ANIMALS. 


ceedingly  valuable  hog,  but  are  nearly  extinct  both  in  England 
?nd  this  country,  as  a  breed. 

The  Leicesters  are  a  large,  white  hog,  generally  coarse  in  the 
bone  and  hair,  great  eaters,  and  slow  in  maturing.  Some 
varieties  of  this  breed  differ  essentially  in  these  particulars, 
and  mature  early  on  a  moderate  amount  of  food.  The  crosses 
with  smaller  compact  breeds,  are  generally  thrifty,  desirable 
animals.  Other  large  breeds  deserving  commendation  in  this 
country,  are  the  large  Miami  white,  the  Yorkshire  white,  and 
the  Kenilworth,  each  frequently  attaining,  when  dressed,  a 
weight  of  600  to  800  lbs. 

Fig.  34. 


China  Hog. 

The  Chinese  is  among  the  smaller  varieties,  and  without 
doubt  is  the  parent  stock  of  the  best  Emopean  aiid  American 
swine.  They  necessarily  vary  in  appearance,  size,  shape,  and 
color,  from  the  diversity  in  the  style  of  breeding,  and  the 
various  regions  from  which  they  are  derived. 

The  Fig.  represents  the  pure  China  pig,  and  is  a  striking 
likeness  of  many  of  the  imported  and  their  immediate  descend- 
ants that  we  have  seen  in  this  country.  They  are  too  small 
»n  animal  for  general  use,  and  require  to  be  mixed  with  larger 


BREEDS    OF    SWINE. 


197 


breeds  to  produce  the  most  profitable  carcass  for  the  market. 
For  the  purpose  of  refinmg  the  coarse  breeds,  no  animal  has 
ever  been  so  successful  as  this.  They  are  fine-boned,  short, 
and  very  compact,  with  bellies  almost  touching  the  ground, 
light  head  and  ears,  fine  muzzle,  of  great  docility  and  quiet- 
ness, small  feeders,  and  producing  much  meat  for  the  quantity 
of  food  consumed. 

From  the  rapidity  with  which  generations  of  this  animal  are 
multiphed,  the  variety  of  other  bieeds  on  which  they  are 
crossed,  and  the  treatment  to  which  they  are  subjected,  it  is 
not  surprising  that  their  descendants  should  rapidly  assume 
distinct  features.  They  furnish  not  only  a  strong  dash  of 
blood  in  the  best  class  of  large  breeds,  but  in  such  of  the 
smaller  as  have  any  pretensions  to  merit,  they  constitute  the 
greater  part  of  the  improvement.  Such  are  the  Neapolitan, 
the  Essex  half -blade,  the  Grass  breed,  and  some  others. 
Fig.  35. 


Berkshire  Hog. 

The  Berkshires  are  an  ancient  English  breed,  formerly  of 
large  size,  slow  feeders,  and  late  in  maturing.  Their  color 
was  a  buff  or  sandy  ground,  with  large  black  spots,  an*  'the 
feet,  'ower  part  of  the  legs,  and  tuft  on  the  tad,  buff.     The 


198  DOMESTIC    ANIMALS^ 

latter  color  lias  giveji  place,  in  most  of  the  modem  ace,  to 
white  in  the  same  }>arts.  This  variation,  with  the  more  im- 
portant ones  of  early  maturity  and  good  feeding-properties, 
are  by  Professor  Low  ascribed  to  a  Chinese  cross,  which 
has  added  the  only  characteristic  in  which  they  were  before 
deficient. 

They  were  first  introduced  and  reared  as  a  distinct  breed  in 
this  country  by  Mr.  Brentnall,  of  Orange  Co.,  and  Mr.  Hawes, 
of  Albany,  N.  York.  In  their  hands,  and  those  of  other  skil- 
ful breeders,  their  merits  were  widely  promulgated.  No  other 
breeds  have  been  so  extensively  diffused  in  the  United  States, 
within  comparatively  so  brief  a  period,  as  the  Berkshires,  since 
1832,  and  they  have  produced  a  marked  improvement  in  many 
of  our  former  races. 

They' weigh  variously,  from  250  to  400  lbs.  net,  at  16 
months,  according  to  their  food  and  style  of  breeding ;  and 
some  full-grown  have  dressed  to  more  than  800  lbs.  They 
particularly  excel  in  their  hams,  which  are  round,  full,  and 
heavy,  and  contain  a  large  proportion  of  lean,  tender,  and 
juicy  meat,  of  tlie  best  flavor. 

None  of  our  improved  breeds  afford  long,  coarse  hair  or 
bristles ;  and  it  is  a  gratifying  evidence  of  our  decided  im- 
provement in  this  department  of  domestic  animals,  that  our 
brush-makers  are  under  the  necessity  of  importing  most  of 
what  they  use  from  Russia  and  northern  Europe.  This  im- 
provement is  manifest  not  only  in  the  hair,  but  in  the  skin, 
which  is  soft  and  mellow  to  the  touch ;  in  the  finer  bones, 
shorter  head,  upright  ears,  dishing  face,  delicate  muzzle,  and 
mild  eye  ;  and  in  the  short  legs,  low  flanks,  deep  and  wide 
chest,  broad  back,  and  early  matmity. 

Breeding. 

Swine  should  not  be  allowed  to  breed  before  12  or  15 
months  old,  unless  the  animals  are  large  and  coarse,  when 
they  may  be  put  to  it  somewhat  younger.  Not  only  choice 
individuals,  but  such  as  are  well  descended,  should  be  selected 
for  the  purpose  of  breeding.  The  sow  should  be  in  good  con- 
dition, but  not  fat,  nor  approaching  to  it ;  and  a  proper  degree 
of  exercise  is  essential  to  the  development  of  the  foetus  and  the 
health  of  the  parent ;  for  v/hich  reason,  she  should  have  an 
extended  range  connected  with  her  pen. 

The  sow  goes  with  young  about  114' days.  A  week  before 
he"  time  comes  r>und,  a  comfortable,  quiet  place  should  be 


MANAGEMENT  AND  FATTENING.  199 

prepared  for  her  under  cover,  and  well-protected  from  cold, 
if  the  weather  be  severe  ;  or  if  warm,  a  range  in  a  pasture 
with  an  open  shed  to  r\  tire  to,  is  sufficient.  Too  much  litter 
for  bedding  must  be  avoided,  and  no  change  or  disturbance  of 
the  sow  permitted,  till  two  or  three  weeks  after  pigging,  as 
the  restlessness  thereby  produced  may  result  in  the  loss  of 
the  pigs.  The  sow  should  be  fed  only  with  a  small  quantity 
of  the  lightest  food  or  thin  gruel,  for  two  or  three  days,  nor 
put  on  full  feed  for  a  week.  If  inclined  to  eat  her  pigs,  she 
should  be  fed  two  or  three  times  with  raw  pork  or  fresh  meat. 
The  pigs  may  be  taught  to  crack  oats  or  soaked  corn  after 
three  weeks,  and  if  provided  with  a  trough  inaccessible  to  the 
dam,  they  will  soon  learn  to  feed  on  milk  and  other  food,  pre- 
paratory to  weaning.  This  may  take  place  when  they  are  8 
or  10  weeks  old ;  and  to  prevent  injury  to  the  sow,  let  one  or 
two  remain  with  her  a  few  days  longer,  and  when  finally  re- 
moved, if  her  bag  appears  to  be  full,  they  may  be  allowed  to 
drain  the  milk  after  20  or  30  hours.  The  sow  should  be  re- 
stricted to  a  light,  dry  diet  for  a  few  days  at  this  ^^eriod. 

Management  and  Fattening. 

There  are  but  two  objects  in  keeping  swine,  for  breeding 
and  for  slaughter,  and  their  management  is  consequently  sim- 
ple. Those  designed  for  breeding,  should  be  kept  in  growing 
condition,  on  light  food,  and  have  every  advantage  for  exer- 
cise. Such  as  are  destined  exclusively  for  fattening,  ought  to 
be  steadily  kept  to  the  object. 

It  is  the  usual,  though  a  bad  practice  in  this  country,  to  let 
spring  pigs  run  at  large  for  the  first  15  months,  with  such  food 
as  is  convenient  ;  and  if  fed  at  all,  it  is  only  to  keep  them  in 
moderate  growth  till  the  second  autumn.  They  are  then  put 
up  to  fatten,  and  in  the  course  of  60  or  90  days  are  fed  off 
and  slaughtered.  Duiing  this  brief  period,  they  gain  from  50 
to  100  per  cent,  more  of  dressed  weight,  than  in  the  15  or  18 
months  preceding  :  nor  even  then  do  they  yield  a  greater 
average  weight  than  is  often  attained  by  choice,  thrifty  pigs, 
whicli  have  been  well-fed  from  weaning' to  the  age  of  8  or  9 
months. 

Three  pigs  of  the  Bedford  breed,  when  precisely  7 J  months 
old,  dressed  230,  235,  and  238i  lbs.  Two  of  the  Berkshire 
and  Leicestoi  breeds,  at  9  months,  dressed  304  and  310  lbs. 
Three  others  )f  the  Berkshire  and  Grass  breeds,  7  months  and 
27  days  old  weighed  240,  250,  and  251  lbs.  net.     Innuine- 


200  DOMESTIC    ANIMALS. 

rable  instances  could  be  adduced  of  similar  freights,  gained 
within  the  same  time,  with  a  good  breed  of  animals  under  ju- 
dicious treatment.  We  have  no  one  accurate  account  of  the 
food  consumed,  so  as  to  determine  the  relative  profit  of  short 
or  long  feeding.  But  that  an  animal  must  consume  much 
more  in  18  or  20  months  to  produce  the  same  quantity  of 
dressed  meat,  which  is  made  by  others  of  8  or  9  months,  does 
not  admit  of  a  doubt. 

We  have  seen  that  an  ox  requires  but  little  more  than  double 
the  quantity  of  food  to  fatten,  that  is  necessary  for  supporting 
existence.  If  we  apply  this  principle  to  swine,  and  state  the 
quantity  of  food  which  will  fatten  the  pig  rapidly,  to  be  three 
times  as  great  as  for  the  support  of  life,  we  shall  find  that  the 
pig  will  fatten  in  7  months,  on  the  same  food  he  would  con- 
sume to  kerp  him  alive  for  21.  This  is  based  on  the  supposi- 
tion that  joth  animals  are  of  equal  size.  But  the  pig  that 
matures  and  is  slaughtered  at  T  months,  has  only  a  moderate 
capacity  for  eating.  During  the  early  stages  of  his  growth, 
his  size  and  the  consequent  incapacity  of  the  digestive  organs, 
prevent  thr  consumption  of  the  same  quantity  which  the  larger 
animal  requires ;  and  his  accumulating  fat,  his  limited  respira- 
tion, consequent  upon  the  compression  of  his  lungs,  and  his 
indisposition  to  exercise,  all  conspire  to  keep  the  consumption 
of  food  Avithin  the  smallest  possible  limit.  This  result,  in  the 
absence  of  any  experiment,  must  be  conjectural  entirely ;  but 
we  believe  that  experiments  wall  show,  that  of  two  thrifty 
pigs  from  the  same  litter,  one  of  which  is  properly  fed  to  his 
utra  ost  capacity  for  7  months,  and  the  other  fed  with  precisely 
double  the  quantity  of  similar  food  for  21  months,  the  first 
Avill  yield  more  carcass  and  of  a  better  and  more  profitable 
quality  than  the  latter,  which  has  consumed  100  per  cent,  the 
most. 

The  food  is  only  one  item  in  this  calculation.  The  oldest  re- 
quires the  most  attention,  is  liable  to  more  accidents  and  dis- 
ease, besides  the  loss  of  interest.  We  are  necessarily  forced  to 
the  conclusion,  that  by  far  the  cheapest  mode  of  wintering  pigs 
is  in  the  pork-barrel.  We  can  readily  anticipate  one  objection 
to  this  practice,  which  is  the  want  of  food  at  the  requisite 
season  of  the  year  to  fatten  them.  This  can  be  obviated,  by 
reserving  enough  of  the  previous  year's  grain,  to  keep  the 
animal  in  a  rapidly  thriving  state,  till  the  next  crop  matures 
sufficiently  to  feed. 

In  the  rich  corn  regions,  on  its  beginning  to  ripen,  as  it 
does  in  August,  the  fields  are  fenced  ofi"  into  suitable  lots,  and 


MANAGEMENT    AND    FATTENING.  201 

large  herds  are  successively  turned  into  tliem,  to  consume  tlie 
grain  at  their  leisure.  Tliey  waste  nothing  except  the  stalks, 
which  in  that  region  of  plenty  are  considered  of  little  value, 
and  they  are  still  useful  as  manure  for  succeeding  crops  ;  and 
whatever  grain  is  left  by  them,  leaner  droves  which  follow, 
will  readily  glean.  Peas,  early  buckwheat,  and  apples,  may 
be  fed  on  the  ground  in  the  same  way. 

There  is  an  improvement  in  the  character  of  the  grain  from 
a  few  months'  keeping,  which  is  fully  equivalent  to  the  interest 
of  the  money  and  cost  of  storage.  If  fattened  early  in  the 
season,  they  will  consume  less  food  to  make  an  equal  amount 
of  flesh  than  in  colder  weather ;  they  will  require  less  atten- 
tion ;  and  generally,  early  pork  vfill  command  the  highest  pric  e 
in  market. 

It  is  most  economical,  to  provide  the  swine  with  a  fine 
clover  pasture  to  run  in  during  the  spring  and  summer ;  and 
they  ought  also  to  have  access  to  the  orchard,  to  pick  up  all 
the  unripe  and  superfluous  fruit  that  falls.  They  should  also 
have  the  wash  of  the  house  and  the  dairy,  to  which  add  meal, 
and  sour  in  large  tubs  or  barrels.  Not  less  than  one-third, 
and  perhaps  more,  of  the  whole  grain  fed  to  swine,  is  saved 
by  grinding  and  cooking  or  souring.  Yet  care  must  be  ob- 
served that  the  souring  be  not  carried  so  far  as  to  injure 
the  food  by  putrefaction.  A  mixture  of  meal  and  water, 
with  the  addition  of  yeast  or  such  remains  of  a  former 
fermentation  as  adhere  to  the  side  or  bottom  of  the  vessel, 
and  exposure  to  a  temperature  between  68°  and  77°  will 
produce  immediate  fermentation. 

In  this  process  there  are  five  stages.  The  saccharine,  by 
which  the  starch  and  gum  of  the  vegetables,  in  their  natural 
condition,  are  converted  into  sugar ;  the  vinous,  which  changes 
the  sugar  into  alcohol ;  the  mucilaginous,  sometimes  taking 
the  place  of  the  vinous,  and  occurring  when  the  sugar  solution, 
or  fermenting  principle  is  weak,  producing  a  slimy,  glutinous 
product ;  the  acetic,  forming  vinegar,  from  the  vinous  or  alco- 
holic stage ;  and  the  ])utrefa.ctive,  which  destroys  aU  the 
nutritive  principles  and  converts  them  into  a  poison.  The 
precise  point  in  fermentation  when  the  food  becomes  most 
profitable  for  feeding,  has  not  yet  been  satisfactorily  deter- 
mined ;  but  that  it  should  stop  short  of  the  putrefactive,  and 
probably  the  full  maturity  of  the  acetic,  is  certain. 

The  roots  for  fattening  animals  ought  to  be  washed,  and 
steamed  or  boiled;  and  when  not  intended  to  be  fermented, 
the  meal  may  be  scalded  with  the  roots.     A  small  quantity  of 


202  DOMESTIC    ANIMALS. 

salt  sliould  be  added.  Potatoes  are  the  best  roots  for  swine  ; 
then  parsnips ;  orange  or  red  carrots,  white  or  Belgian ; 
sugar  beets ;  mangel-wurzel ;  ruta-bagas ;  and  the  white  tur- 
nips, in  the  order  mentioned.  The  nutritive  properties  of  tur- 
nips are  diffused  through  so  large  a  bulk,  that  we  doubt 
if  the  J  can  ever  be  fed  to  fattening  swine  with  advantage; 
and  they  will  barely  sustain  lif(  when  fed  to  them  uncooked. 

There  is  a  great  loss  in  feeding  roots  to  fattening  swine, 
without  cooking.  When  unprepared  grain  is  fed,  it  should  be 
on  a  full  stomach,  to  prevent  imperfect  mastication,  and  con- 
sequent loss  of  the  food.  It  is  better  indeed  to  have  it  always 
before  them.  The  animal  machine  is  an  expensive  one  to  keep 
in  motion,  and  it  should  be  the  object  of  the  farmer  to  put  his 
food  in  the  most  available  condition  for  its  immediate  conver- 
sion into  fat  and  muscle. 

Swine  ought  to  be  kept  perfectly  dry  and  clean,  and  pro- 
\aded  with  a  warm  shelter,  to  which  they  can  retire  at  pleas- 
ure. This  will  greatly  hasten  the  fattening  and  economize 
the  food.  They  thrive  better  and  are  generally  less  subject 
to  disease,  v/hen  long  confined  in  yards,  by  having  a  clear  run- 
ning stream  always  accessible,  to  wallow  in.  This  is  one  of 
the  best  preventives  of  vermin  and  cutaneous  diseases.  A  hog 
ought  to  have  three  apartments,  one  each  for  sleeping,  eating, 
and  evacuations,  of  which  the  last  ma}^  occupy  the  lowest,  and 
the  first  the  highest  level,  so  that  nothing  shall  be  drained,  and 
as  little  carried  into  the  first  two  as  possible.  They  must  be 
regularly  fed  three  times  a  day,  and  if  there  is  a  surplus,  it 
should  be  removed  at  once.  If  they  are  closely  confined  in 
pens,  give  them  as  much  charcoal  twice  a  week  as  they  will 
eat.  This  corrects  any  tendency  to  disorders  of  the  stomach. 
Rotten  wood  is  an  imperfect  substitute  for  charcoal. 

Grav-es,  scraps,  or  cracklings,  as  they  are  variously  called, 
the  residuum  of  rough  lard  or  tallow,  after  expressmg  the  fat, 
are  a  good  change  and  an  economical  food.  Some  animal 
food,  although  not  essential,  is  always  acceptable  to  swine. 
When  about  to  finish  them  off,  many  feed  for  a  few  weeks  on 
hard  corn.  This  is  proper  when  slops  or  indifferent  food  has 
been  given,  and  rfieal  cannot  be  conveniently  procured ;  but 
when  fattened  on  sound  roots  and  meal,  it  is  a  wasteful  prac- 
tice, as  the  animal  thus  falls  behind  his  accustomed  growth. 
It  is  better  to  give  him  an  occasional  feed  of  the  raw  gram,  for 
a  change,  and  to  sharpen  his  appetite. 

The  products  furnished  by  the  carcass  of  swine  ara  numerous. 
Every  part  ^i  the  anima^-  is  used  for  food,  and  it  admits  of  a 


CURING    HAMS    AND    PORK.  203 

far  greater  variety  of  preparation  for  tlie  table,  tian  any  other 
flesh.  From  the  remotest  antiquity  to  the  present  time,  and 
in  every  grade  of  barbarous  and  civihzed  hfe,  it  has  been  es- 
teemed as  one  of  the  choicest  dehcacies  of  the  epicure. 

Lard-oil  {oleine)  has,  within  a  few  years,  given  to  pork  a 
new  and  profitable  use,  by  which  the  value  of  the  carcass  is 
greatly  increased.  At  some  of  the  large  pork-packing  depots 
of  the  West,  one-third  of  the  whole  quantity  has  been  thus  dis- 
posed of.  This  has  withdrawn  a  large  amount  of  pork  from 
the  market,  and  prevented  the  depression  which  must  other- 
wise have  occurred. 

Where  the  oil  is  required,  the  whole  carcass,  after  taking 
out  the  hams  and  shoulders,  is  placed  in  a  tub  having  two  bot- 
toms, the  upper  one  perforated  with  holes,  on  which  the  pork 
is  laid,  and  then  tightly  covered.  Steam,  at  a  high  tempera- 
ture, is  then  admitted  into  the  tub,  and  in  a  short  time  all  the 
fat  is  extracted  and  falls  upon  the  lower  bottom.  The  remain- 
ing mass  is  bones  and  scraps.  The  kst  is  fed  to  pigs,  poultry, 
or  dogs,  or  affords  the  best  kind  of  manure.  The  bones  are 
either  used  for  manure,  or  are  converted  into  animal  charcoal, 
worth  about  three  cents  per  pound,  which  is  valuable  for  va- 
rious purposes  in  the  arts.  When  the  object  is  to  obtain  lard 
of  a  fine  quality,  the  animal  is  first  skinned,  and  the  adhering 
fat  carefully  scraped  off.  The  oily,  viscid  matter  of  the  skin 
is  thus  avoided.  When  tanned,  the  skin  makes  a  valuable 
leather.  An  aggregate  vreight  of  1790  lbs.  from  four  well- 
fattened  animals,  after  taking  out  the  hams  and  shoulders,  say 
about  400  lbs.,  gave  within  a  fraction  of  1200  lbs.  of  the  best 
lard. 

Stearine  and  Oleine. — Lard  and  all  fatty  matters  consist  of 
three  principles,  of  which  stearine  contains  the  stearic  and 
margaric  acids,  both  of  which,  when  separated,  are  solid,  and 
used  as  inferior  substitutes  for  wax  or  spermaceti  candles. 
The  other,  oleine,  is  fluid  at  a  low  temperature,  and  in  Ameri- 
can commerce,  is  knov/n  as  lard-oil.  It  is  very  pure,  and  ex- 
tensively used  for  machinery,  lamps,  and  most  of  the  purposes 
for  which  olive  or  spermaceti  oils  are  used. 

Curing  Hams  and  Pork. 

After  dressing,  the  carcass  should  be  allowed  to  hang  till 
perfectly  drained  and  cool,  when  it  may  be  cut  up  and  salted. 
The  usual  way  is  to  pack  the  pork  in  clean  salt,  adding  brine 
to  the  barrel  when  filled.     Bu':  it  may  be  dry  salted,  by  rub* 


204  DOMESTIC    ANIMALS. 

bing  it  in  thoroughly  on  every  side  of  each  piece,  with  a  strong 
leather  rubber  firmly  secured  to  the  palm  of  the  right  hand. 
The  pieces  are  then  thrown  into  heaps  and  sprinkled  with  salt, 
and  occasionally  turned  till  cured  ;  or  it  may  at  once  be  pack- 
ed in  dry  casks,  which  are  occasionally  rolled  to  bring  the  salt 
into  contact  with  every  part. 

Hams  and  Shoulders 

May  be  cured  in  the  same  manner,  either  dry  or  in  pickle, 
but  with  diflPerently  arranged  materials.  The  following  is  a 
good  pickle  for  200  lbs.  Take  14  lbs.  of  Turk  Island  salt ; 
^  lb.  of  saltpetre  ;  2  qts.  of  molasses,  or  4  lbs.  of  brown  sugar, 
with  water  enough  to  dissolve  them.  Bring  the  liquor  to  the 
scalding  point,  and  skim  off  all  the  impurities  which  rise  to 
the  top.  When  cold,  pour  it  upon  the  ham,  which  should  be 
perfectly  cool  but  not  frozen,  and  closely  packed  ;  and  if  not 
sufficient  to  cover  it,  add  enough  pure  water  for  this  purpose. 
Some  extensive  packers  in  Cincinnati  and  elsewhere,  who  send 
choice  hams  to  market,  add  pepper,  allspice,  cinnamon,  nut- 
megs, or  mace  and  cloves. 

The  hams  may  remain  six  or  eight  weeks  in  this  pickle,  then 
hung  up  in  the  smoke-house,  with  the  small  end  down,  and 
smoked  from  10  to  20  days,  according  to  the  quantity  of 
smoke.  The  fire  should  not  be  near  enough  to  heat  the  hams. 
In  Holland  and  Westphalia,  the  fire  is  made  in  the  cellar,  and 
the  smoke  carried  by  a  flue  into  a  cool,  dry  chamber.  This 
is  undoubtedly  the  best  method  of  smoking.  The  hams  should 
at  all  times  be  dry  and  cool,  or  their  flavor  will  sufter.  Green 
sugar-maple  chips  are  best  for  smoke  ;  next  to  them  are  hick- 
ory, sweet-birch,  corn-cobs,  white-ash,  or  beech. 

The  smoke-house  is  the  best  place  to  keep  hams  till  wanted. 
If  removed,  they  should  be  kept  cool,  dry,  and  free  from  flies. 
A  canvass-cover  for  each,  saturated  with  hme,  which  may  be 
put  on  ^vith  a  whitewash  brush,  is  a  perfect  protection  against 
flies.  When  not  to  be  kept  long,  they  may  be  packed  in  dry 
salt,  or  even  in  sweet  brine,  without  injury.  A  common  meth- 
od is  to  pack  in  dry  oats,  baked  sawdust,  &c. 


DISEASES  OF  SWIJSE. 

Mortifying  as  the  fact  may  be  to  human  pride,  it  is  never- 
theless certain,  that  the  mternal  arrangements,  the  viscera, 
digestive  organs,   omnivorous  propensities,    and  the   general 


PULMONARY  AFFECTIONS,  ETC. 


205 


physiological  structure  of  the  hog  and  the  bear,  more  nearly 
resemble  man,  than  any  other  animal.  Many  of  their  diseases 
may  therefore  be  expected  to  be  a  modification  of  those  of  the 
human  species,  and  require  a  similar  treatment 


Skeleton,  of  a  Pig 

A  MaxUla  inferior,  vel  posterior;  lower  jaw.— B  Dentes;  the  teeth.— C  Ossa 
nasi;  the  nasal  bones. — D  Maxilla  sufjerior,  vel  anterior;  upper  jaw. — E  Os 
frontis  ;  the  frontal  bone.— F  Orbiculus  ;  the  orbit  or  socket  of  the  eye.— G  Os 
occipitis  ;  the  occipital  bone.— H  Atlas  ;  the  first  vertebra  of  the  neck.— I  Verte- 
brae colli,  vel  cervicales  ;  the  vertebrte  of  the  neck.— J  Vertebrai  dorsi,  vel  dorsa- 
les  ;  the  vertebrae  of  the  back. — K  Vertebra?  luinboriim,  vel  lunibales  ;  the  verte- 
brae of  the  loins.— L  Ossa  coccygis  ;  the  bones  of  the  tail.— a  Scapula;  the 
shoulder-blade. — b  Humerus ;  the  round  shoulder-bone. — c  Sternum  ;  the  breast- 
bone.— d  Ulna;  the  elbow. — c  Radius;  the  bone  of  the  fore-arm.—/  Osnavicu- 
lare  ;  the  navicular  bone.— ^  Phalanges,  vel  ossa  pedis  ;  the  first  and  second  bones 
of  the  foot. — h  Phalanges,  vel  ossa  pedis  ;  the  bones  of  the  hoof. — i  Pelvis,  (ossa 
Innorninata  ;)  the  haunch  bones.— j  Os  femoris ;  the  thigh-bone. — k  Patella;  the 
stifie-bone.— Z  Tibia  ;  the  upprer  bone  of  the  leg.— ot.  Tarsus,  (one  of  which  is  the 
(N)  OS  calcls  ;)  the  hock-bones. — n  Os  naviculare  ;  the  navicular  bone. — o  Digiti, 
vel  phalanges,  (ossa  pedis  ;)  the  first  digits  of  the  foot. — p  Digiti,  vel  phalanges, 
(ossd  pedis  ;)  the  second  digits  of  the  foot. 


Pulmonary  Affections,  Colds,  Couglis,  and  Measles. 

To  each  of  these,  swine  are  peculiarly  liable,  and,  as  with 
most  other  evils,  prevention  of  disease  in  swine  is  more  easy 
and  economical  than  cure.  A  dry  warm  bed,  free  from  winds 
or  storms,  and  suitable  food,  will  most  effectually  prevent  any 
injuries,  or  fatal  attacks.  The  hog  has  little  external  covering 
to  protect  him  against  cold.  Nature  has  provided  this  imme- 
diately within  the  skin,  in  the  deep  layer  of  fat  which  sur- 
rounds the  full,  plump  hog.     Fat  is  one  of  the  best  non-con- 

18 


206  DOMESTIC    ANIMALS. 

ductors  of  lieat,  and  the  pig  which  is  well-fed  bids  defiance 
to  the  intense  cold,  which  would  produce  great  suffering,  and 
consequent  disease,  in  the  ill-conditioned  animal.  By  the  ob- 
servance of  a  proper  medium  between  too  much  fat  or  lean, 
for  the  store  or  breeding  swine,  and  providing  them  with 
comfortable  beds  and  proper  feed,  nearly  all  diseases  will  be 
avoided. 

For  Coughs  and  Inflammation  of  the  Lungs,  bleeding  should 
immediately  be  resorted  to,  after  which  give  gentle  purges  of 
castor  oil,  or  Epsom  salts ;  and  this  should  be  followed  with  a 
dose  of  antimonial  powders — 2  grains,  mixed  with  half  a 
drachm  of  nitre.  '^ 

For  Costiveness  or  loss  of  appetite,  sulphur  is  an  excellent 
remedy,  given  in  a  light  mess. 

Itch  may  be  cured  by  anointing  with  equal  parts  of  lard 
and  brimstone.  Rubbing-posts,  and  a  running  stream  to  wal- 
low in  are  preventives. 

The  Kidney  Worm  is  frequentl}^  fatal ;  and  always  produces 
vf  eakness  of  the  loins  and  hind  legs,  usually  followed  by  entire 
prostration.  A  pig  thus  fur  gone,  is  hardly  worth  the  trouble 
of  recovering,  even  where  practicable. 

Preventives,  are  general  thrift,  a  range  in  a  good  pasture, 
and  a  dose  of  half  a  pint  of  wood-ashes  every  week  or  fort- 
night in  their  food.  A  small  quantity  of  saltpetre,  spirits  of 
turpentine,  or  tar,  will  effect  the  sarae  object.  When  attacked, 
apply  spirits  of  turpenUne  to  the  loins,  and  administer  calomel 
carefully ;  or  give  half  a  tablespoonful  of  copperas  daily  for 
one  or  tvfo  weeks. 

Blind  Staggers. 

This  is  generally  confined  to  pigs,  and  manifests  itself  in 
foaming  at  the  mouth,  rearing  on  their 'hind  legs,  champing 
and  grinding  their  teeth,  and  apparent  blindness.  The  proper 
remedies  are  bleeding  and  purging  freely,  and  these  frequently 
fail.  Many  nostrums  have  been  suggested,  but  few  are  of  any 
utility.  It  is  important  to  '?.eep  the  issues  on  the  inside  of  the 
fore-legs,  just  below  the  knee,  thoroughly  cleansed. 

The  tails  of  young  pigs  frequently  drop  or  rot  off,  which  is 
attended  with  no  further  disadvantage  to  the  animal  than  the 
loss  of  the  member.  The  remedies  are,  to  give  a  little  brim- 
stone or  sulphur  in  the  food  of  the  dam ;  or  rub  oil  or  grease 
daily  on  the  affected  parts.  It  may  be  detected  by  a  rough- 
ness or  scabbiness  at  the  point  where  separa'jon  is  likely  to 
oceui 


FARM-DOGS.  207 

^ — The  most  convenient  mode,  is  from  an  artery- 
just  above  the  knee,  on  the  inside  of  the  fore- arm.  It  may  be 
drawn  more  copiously  from  the  roof  of  the  mouth.  The  flow 
of  blood  may  usually  be  stopped,  by  applying  a  sponge  or 
cloth  with  cold  water. 

The  diseases  of  swine,  though  not  numerous,  are  formidable, 
and  many  of  them  soon  become  fatal.  They  have  not  been 
the  subject  of  particular  scientific  study,  and  most  of  the  rem- 
edies applied,  are  rather  the  result  of  casual  or  hap-hazard 
suggestion,  than  of  well-digested  inference,  from  long- continued 
and  accurate  observation. 


CHAPTER   VIII, 


FARM-DOGS. 


No  grazing  farm  is  complete  w^ithout  one  or  more  intelligent, 
w  ell-trained  dogs,  adapted  to  the  various  wants  of  their  owners ; 
and  the  general  taste  has  made  their  presence  almost  universal 
in  every  rural  household.  The  dog  is  peculiarly  the  friend 
of  man.  Many  other  animals  have  a  temporary  though  feeble 
attachment  to  him,  which  seems  the  result  rather  of  constant 
companionship,  or  the  selfishness  of  dependence,  than  any 
well-settled  affection  towards  a  master. 

The  dog  alone,  of  all  the  brute  creation,  seems  capable  of  a 
disinterested,  self-sacrificing  affection ;  and  this,  united  with 
his  usefulness  and  adaptedness  to  all  chmes  and  countries,  has 
made  him  a  favorite  in  every  quarter  of  the  globe.  Since  this 
animal  is  the  habitual  tenant  of  the  farm,  and,  when  suited  to 
his  peculiar  duties,  can  be  made  of  great  utility  by  the  assist- 
ance he  is  capable  of  affording  in  its  management,  we  deem  it 
entirely  appropriate  to  our  subject  to  indicate  such  of  the  spe- 
cies as  are  deserving  the  farmer's  attention.  Discarding  all 
ideas  of  fancy  or  sportsmanship,  and  looking  to  utility  alone, 
we  may  safely  affirm  that  the  farmer  needs  only  such  as  may 
be  found  in  the  four  breeds  of  the  Newfoundland,  the  Shep- 
herd's and  Drover's  dog,  ant  the  Terrier. 


208  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS. 

Fig  37. 


Newfoundland  Dog. 

The  Newfoniialaad  Cos 


This  dog,  of  which  we  give  a  poi  trait,  is  always  above  me- 
dium height,  and  frequently  is  of  the  largest  size.  He  is  long- 
haired and  shagg}^,  and  has  a  thick  coat  of  fine,  soft  fur,  be- 
neath the  outer  covering,  Avhich  is  almost  impenetrable  by 
water.  His  color  is  most  frequently  black  ;  ofi. en  spotted  and 
partially  flecked  or  grayish ;  and  occasionally  buff.  The 
Newfoundland  is  of  the  Spaniel  family,  but  derives  its  name 
from  the  island  where  it  has  been  bred  for  centuries,  to  the 
great  advantage  of  its  inhabitants.  There  are  two  varieties : 
the  large,  used  in  the  north,  called  the  Labrador  ;  and  the 
smaller,  more  docile  and  intelligent,  of  the  south,  called  the  St. 
John's.  They  are  employed  by  the  islanders,  and  the  people 
of  the  neighboiing  coast,  in  drawing  their  sleds  and  carts  load- 
ed with  fish,  wood,  &c.  They  aid  them  in  various  ways  in 
their  fishing  operations ;  they  are  strong,  courageous,  and 
watchful ;  and  with  slight  training,  they  are  scarcely  inferior 
to  the  best  hunting-dogs  in  pursuing  the  wild  game  that 
abounds  in  those  high  northern  latitudes.  These  estimable 
qualities,  coupled  with  their  uniform  good-nature,  have  always 
made  them  favorites  with  the  farmer. 

The  Newfoundland  is  an  excellent  watch-dog ;  sagacious  ia 
discriminating  between  a  friend  and  a  foe,  and  with  courage 


209 

and  strength  to  follow  out  his  prompt  and  judicious  conclu- 
sions. He  is  easily  trained  for  the  drover,  to  whom  he  is  fre- 
quently a  great  assistant ;  and  with  a  scent  sufficiently  acute 
to  pursue  game,  he  is  readily  broken  in  as  a  useful  companion 
to  the  sportsman.  He  can  also  be  made  serviceable  in  the 
various  duties  of  the  farm :  destroying  noxious  vermin,  taking 
the  cattle  and  horses  to  the  field  or  water,  drawing  a  light 
load,  churning  the  butter,  &c.  It  is  true,  he  has  not  all  the 
sagacity  of  the  Poodle,  whose  intelligence  approaches  nearer 
to  human  reason  than  any  other  of  the  brute  creation.  But  if 
he  has  not  that  quick  apprehension,  which  too  often  leads,  as 
in  the  case  of  forward  children,  to  the  attainment  of  every 
worthless  accomplishment  and  the  indulgence  of  every  loafer- 
ish  habit,  he  seems  to  have  a  sedate,  well-formed  judgment, 
which  makes  all  his  wit  available  for  some  useful  purpose.  He 
is  unsurpassed  as  a  water-dog;  and  his  courageous  efforts, 
wherever  an  opportunity  has  been  afforded,  in  rescuing  number- 
less human  beings  from  a  watery  grave,  together  with  his  un- 
swerving fidelity  and  devotion,  commend  him  as  the  prince  of 
the  canine  family. 

The  Shepherd's  Dog. 

This  animal,  of  which  we  give  a  beautiful  portrait  on  the  next 
page,  of  the  long-haired  Scottish  breed,  belongs  to  the  same 
family  as  the  Newfoundland  and  Poodle,  which  embraces  the 
most  intelligent  and  useful  of  the  canine  specie^.  There  are 
two  classes  of  these  dogs,  which  differ  widely  in  their  size 
and  characteristics. 

The  larger  is  of  great  size  and  courage,  and  when  protected 
by  a  stout  leather  collar  studded  with  spikes,  is  a  full  match 
for  the  Avolf.  These  are  used  by  the  Spanish  and  Mexican 
shepherds,  on  their  wild  sierras,  as  effective  guards  against  the 
attacks  of  all  marauders,  and  are  essentially  the  same  race  as 
the  far-famed  dogs  of  Moimt  St.  Bernard.  They  are  not  suf- 
ficiently gentle  for  guides,  and  the  shepherds  who  employ 
them  rely  on  some  well-trained  wethers  or  goats  to  lead  the 
flock  at  their  call.  Some  have  been  imported  into  this  country, 
but  on  account  of  their  headstrong  and  ferocious  character, 
and  occasional  depredations  upon  the  flocks,  they  have  been 
found  unsuited  to  our  wants,  except  on  the  borders  of  the 
wilderness. 

The  CoUey  or  Scottish  sheep-dog,  the  English,  and  those 
extensively  used  upon  the  continent,  differ  much  in  their  form 
and  appearance,  but  agree  in  their  intelligence,  docility,  and 

18* 


210 


DOMESTIC    AN  MAL8. 

Fig.  38 


Shepherd's  Dog 

usefulness.  They  are  of  medium  size,  with  a  sharp  nose, 
broad  forehead,  and  small  upright  ear ;  they  are  both  shaggy 
and  smooth-haired,  with  a  bushy  tail,  and  much  hair  about 
the  neck ;  variously  colored,  though  more  frequently  inclined 
tc  black  or  darkly  spotted  and  gray  ;  and  one  branch  of  the 
family  is  entirely  destitute  of  a  tail.  They  possess  an  instinc- 
tive sagacity  for  the  management  of  sheep  ;  and  in  company 
with  a  well-trained  dog,  under  the  direction  of  the  shepherd, 
they  soon  become  entirely  competent  to  the  control  of  the 
flock.  They  perceive  his  wishes  by  a  word  or  sign,  and  with 
almost  the  speed  of  the  greyhound,  dart  off  to  execute  them. 
Accounts  of  their  performances  have  been  frequently  related, 
which  seem  almost  incredible  to  those  unacquainted  with  their 
peculiar  character.  The  following  anecdote,  often  told  by  the 
gifted  poet,  Mr.  James  Hogg,  more  generally  known  by  the 
soubriquet  of  the  Ettrick  Shepherd^  wili  sho\r  their  capacity 
mpre  fully  than  any  description. 


211 

*•■  On  one  nigbt,  a  large  flock  of  lambs  that  were  under  the 
Ettrick  Shepherd's  care,  frightened  by  something,  scampered 
away  in  three  different  directions  across  the  hills,  in  spite  of 
all  that  he  could  do  to  keep  them  together.  '  Sirrah,'  said  the 
shepherd,  '  they're  a'  awa !'  It  was  too  dark  for  the  dog  and 
his  master  to  see  each  other  at  any  considerable  distance,  but 
Sirrah  understood  him,  and  set  off  after  the  fugitives.  The 
night  passed  on,  and  Hogg  and  his  assistant  traversed  every 
neighboring  hill  in  anxious  but  fruitless  search  for  the  lambs ; 
but  he  could  hear  nothing  of  them  nor  of  the  dog,  and  he  was 
returning  to  his  master  with  the  doleful  intelligence  that  he 
had  lost  all  his  lambs,  *  On  our  way  home,  however,'  says 
he,  *  we  discovered  a  lot  of  lambs  at  the  bottom  of  a  deep  ra- 
vine called  the  Flesh  Cleuch,  and  the  indefatigable  Sirrah 
standing  in  front  of  them,  looking  round  for  some  relief,  but 
still  true  to  his  charge.  We  concluded  that  it  was  one  of  the 
divisions  which  Sirrah  had  been  unable  to  manage,  until  he 
came  to  that  commanding  situation.  But  what  was  our  as- 
tonishment when  we  discovered  that  not  one  lamb  of  the  flock 
was  missing !  How  he  had  got  all  the  divisions  collected  in 
the  dark,  is  bej^'ond  my  comprehension.  The  charge  was  left 
entirely  to  himself  from  midnight  until  the  rising  sun ;  and,  if 
all  the  shepherds  in  the  forest  had  been  there  to  have  assisted 
him,  they  could  not  have  effected  it  with  greater  promptitude. 
All  that  I  can  say  is,  that  I  never  felt  so  grateful  to  any 
creature  under  the  sun  as  I  did  to  my  honest  Sirrah  that 
morning.'  " 

They  are  quiet  and  good-natured,  never  inchned  to  roam  or 
neglect  their  duties,  and  as  little  disposed  to  injure  the  animals 
intrusted  to  their  keeping.  They  have  almost  the  intelligence 
of  the  shepherd  in  discerning  the  vagaries  of  the  flock,  and  ten 
times  his  efficiency  in  driving  it.  No  extensive  sheep-walks, 
unless  closely  hemmed  in  by  impassable  fences,  should  be 
without  one  or  more  of  these  useful  animals. 

The  Drover's  Dog. 

This  animal  is  shown  in  the  annexed  figure.  He  is  closely 
allied  to  the  sheep-dog,  from  which  he  derives  all  his  intelK- 
gence  and  capacity,  differing  only  in  being  somewhat  larger 
and  heavier,  which  is  essential  to  his  c-jntrolhng  the  sturdier 
bullocks  under  his  charge.  His  additioial  size  is  acquired  by 
crossing  with  some  of  the  stouter  races,  such  as  the  Newfound- 
land or  the  pointer ;    and  even  the  bull-dog  and  large  shaggy 


212 


D0ME>^T1C    ANIMALS. 
F\s.  39. 


terrier  have  sometimes  been  resorted  to  for  a  strain  of  that  in- 
domitable courage  and  game,  which  is  frequently  requisite  to 
the  proper  discharge  of  his  duties.  He  requires  more  training 
than  the  sheep-dog,  as  his  peculiar  instincts  are  rather  to  the 
management  of  the  flock  than  the  herd ;  but  when  fairly  bro- 
ken in,  he  is  equally  expert  in  its  management.  The  drover's 
dog  may  also  be  useful  for  watching,  if  crossed  with  a  refer- 
ence to  this  object,  v/hich  the  sheep-dog  seldom  is. 


Tlie  Terrier. 

This,  in  addition  to  the  foregoing,  is  the  only  dog  necessary 
to  the  farm.  He  is  needed  principally  for  his  great  sagacity 
and  indefatigable  perseverance  in  exterminating  rats  and  other 
vermin,  that  frequently  congregate  in  swarms  around  the 
farmer's  premises,  producing  such  an  aggregate  of  annoyance 
and  devastation.  Other  dogs  may  occasionally  be  good  rat- 
ters, but  the  terrier  takes  to  them  from  'nstinct,  as  the  New- 


THE    TERRIER.  213 

foundland  does  to  the  water,  or  the  sheep-dog  to  his  flock. 
He  has  great  ingenuity  and  activity  in  ferreting  out  and  cap- 
turing his  prey,  and  whenever  a  fair  opportunity  is  afforded, 
he  seldom  fails  of  success.  The  famous  Enghsh  temer,  BUly, 
on  two  occasions,  killed  100  rats  in  a  ring  at  each  time,  in  an 
average  of  less  than  six  and  a  half  minutes. 

The  terrier  is  usually  below  the  medium  size,  but  sometimes 
fully  comes  up  to  or  even  exceeds  it.  He  is  smooth-haired 
or  rough  according  to  the  breed,  of  which  there  are  several, 
each  claiming  to  be  equally  pure.  Besides  his  capacity  for 
the  destruction  of  small  game,  his  innate  love  for  the  sport 
renders  him  a  valuable  assistant  in  keeping  off  vagrant  cattle 
from  the  premises ;  and  his  quick  ear,  habitual  watchfulness, 
and  prompt  courage,  fully  qualify  him,  to  the  extent  of  his 
size,  for  an  excellent  watch-dog. 

The  fancy  of  country  residents  may  incline  them  to  keep  a 
variety  of  other  dogs  than  are  herein  enumerated,  some  of 
which,  with  good  training,  can  be  made  partial  assistants  to 
their  masters.  But  it  is  unnecessary  to  specify  the  various 
breeds  that  may  possibly  be  of  some  use  on  the  farm,  as  the 
slight  crossing  they  will  be  likely  to  have,  equally  with  their 
opportunities  and  the  attention  bestowed  upon  them,  will  serve 
materially  to  develop  or  obscure  their  peculiar  instincts.  The 
Spaniel  family  and  its  crosses  will  be  found  to  combine  the 
greatest  intelligence,  fidelity,  and  aptitude  to  learn  ;  the  hound 
has  the  keenest  scent  and  greatest  endurance  in  the  pursuit  of 
game ;  while  the  bull- dog  has  the  most  courage,  sullen  fero- 
city, and  strength.  Each  may  occasionally  be  wanted  for  a 
strain  of  blood  for  some  particular  objects ;  and  this  is  espe- 
cially necessary  from  the  bull-dog  in  the  management  of  re- 
fractory cattle,  or  to  give  the  terrier  greater  stoutness  and 
courage. 

The  absurd  custom  of  keeping  from  one  to  a  dozen  dogs, 
untrained  for  any  valuable  purpose,  or  supernumeraries  even  if 
capable  of  rendering  occasional  service,  ought  to  be  abandoned 
by  every  rational  man.  Besides  the  great  annual  cost,  the 
danger  of  communicating  rabies  or  madness  is  sufficient  to 
justify  a  legal  restraint  on  their  numbers.  The  sad  havoc 
they  commit  on  the  flocks,  demands  the  extermination  b,y  law 
of  every  dog  that  is  guilty,  Avhether 

Mongrel,  puppy,  whelp,  or  hound, 
Or  cur  of  low  degree. 

And  even  if  it  includes  the  fides  A  ^ates,  or  parlor  companions, 


214  DOMESTIC    ANIMALS. 

Tray,  Blanche,  and  Sweetheart, 

the  work  of  extirpation  should  proceed,  to  the  extent  of  ciiF- 
taihng  this  branch,  of  farm-stock  to  its  wholesome  and  legiti- 
mate proportions. 


CHAPTER    IX. 

POULTRY. 

Choice  varieties  of  fowls  add  a  pleasrcint  feature  to  the 
farai  premises.  They  engage  the  attention  and  sympathy  of 
the  juvenile  farmers,  and  the  time  bestoAved  in  the  poultry 
yard  keeps  them  from  mischief :  it  is  an  agreeable  and  salutary 
relief  from  toil  and  study,  and  elicits  the  taste,  the  judgment, 
and  the  kindlier  feelings  of  humanity,  vv^hich  are  to  be  matured 
in  the  future  accomphslied  breeder.  When  properly  managed, 
poultry  are  a  source  of  considerable  profit,  yielding  more  for 
the  food  they  consume,  than  any  other  stock,  although  their 
value  is  not  often  considered.  The  agricultural  statistics  of 
the  United  States,  for  1839,  give  us  over  $12,000,000  in 
poultry,  and  it  probably  exceeds  115,000,000  at  the  present 
time.  It  is  estimated  by  McQueen,  that  the  poultry  of  Eng- 
land exceeds  $40,000,000,  and  yet  McCulloch  says  she  im- 
ports 60,000,000  eggs  annually  from  France,  (McQueen  states 
it  at  near  70,000,000  ;)  and  from  other  parts  of  the  continent, 
25,000,000  ;  besides  80,000,000  imported  from  Ireland.  Poul- 
try, then,  ceases  to  be  an  unimportant  object  of  agricultural 
■attention,  and  assumes  its  appropriate  place  among  the  other 
staples  of  the  farmer. 

Hens 

Are  the  most  numerous  and  profitable,  and  the  most  gen- 
erally useful  of  the  feathered  tribe.  The  hen  is  peculiarly  an 
egg-producing  bird.  She  has  the  same  predisposition  for  lay- 
ing, that  the  cow  has  for  secreting  milk.  Some  breeds  are 
better  adapted  for  this  object  than  others  ;  but  in  all  that  have 
ever  come  within  our  notice,  the  proper  food  and  circum- 
stances are  alone  wanting,  to  produce  a  reasonable  quantity  of 
eggs. 
■  The  egg  consists  of  three  distinit  parts ;  the  shell,  the  whiter 


HENS THEIR    FOOD.  215 

and  the  yolk.  A  good-sized  egg  will  weigh  1,000  grains,  of 
which  about  107  are  shell,  604  are  white,  and  289  are  yolk. 
Of  the  shell,  97  per  cent,  is  carbonate  of  Ume,  1  per  cent, 
phosphate  of  hme  and  magnesia,  and  2  per  cent,  albumen. 
The  white  consists  of  12  per  cent,  of  albumen,  2.7  of  mucus, 
0.3  of  salts,  and  85  of  water.  The  yolk  has  about  17.4  per 
cent,  of  albumen,  28.6  of  yellow  oil,  54  of  water,  with  a  trace 
of  sulphur  and  phosphorus. 

The  foregoing  are  tlie  constituents  of  eggs,  which  have  been 
forriSed  when  the  bird  has  free  access  to  the  various  articles 
which  constitute  her  natural  food.  But  they  vary  with  cir- 
cumstances. When-full  fed  and  denied  all  access  to  lime,  she 
will  form  an  egg  without  the  shell,  and  dehver  it  enclosed  in 
the  membrane  or  sack  which  always  surrounds  the  white, 
when  covered  by  the  shell.  When  scantily  fed,  they  will 
frequently  lay  ;  but  from  a  deficiency  of  nutriment,  the  egg 
will  be  meager  and  Avatery,  and  possess  but  a  small  portion  of 
the  nutritious  qualities  peculiar  to  them. 

To  produce  the  largest  number  of  good  eggs,  several  con- 
ditions are  important ;  and  they  must  especially  have  an  abun- 
dance of  the  right  kind  of  food.  This  is  the  most  readily  ob- 
tained in  part  from  animal  food.  In  warm  weather,  when  they 
have  a  free  range,  they  can  generally  supply  their  wants  in 
the  abundance  of  insects,  earth-worms,  and  other  animal  mat- 
t^.rs  within  their  reach.  The  large  proportion  of  albumen 
contained  in  their  eggs,  requires  that  much  of  their  food  should 
be  highly  nitrogenized,  and  when  they  cannot  procure  this  in 
animal  matter,  it  must  be  given  in  grains  containing  it. 

If  to  the  usual  qualities  of  hens,  a  breed  of  peculiar  elegance, 
of  graceful  form,  and  beautiful  plumage,  be  added,  together 
with  entire  adaptation  to  the  economical  purposes  required, 
good  layers  and  good  carcass,  we  have  a  combination  of  utility, 
luxury,  and  taste  in  this  bird,  v/hich  should  commend  them  as 
general  favorites.  They  can  everywhere  be  kept  with  advan- 
tage, except  in  dense  cities.  A  hen  "that  costs  a  shilling  or 
two,  if  provided  with  a  suitable  range,  will  consume  30  or  40 
cents  worth  of  food,  and  produce  from  80  to  150  eggs  per 
annum,  worth  three  or  four  times  the  cost  of  feed  and  attention. 


The  Food 

Of  hens  may  consist  of  different  kinds  of  grain,  either  broken, 
ground,  or  cooked  ;  roots,  and  especially  boiled  potatoes,  are 
nutritious  and  economical ;  green  herbage,  as  clover  and  most 


216 


DOMESTIC    ANIMALS. 


of  the  grasses,  chickweed,  lettuce,  cabbage,  &c.,  will  supply 
them  with  much  of  their  food,  if  fresh  and  tender. 

Fig.  40,  is  a  Food  fountain.  The  grain  is  placed  in  the  hopper, 
which  is  closely  covered,  and  the  grain  falls  into  the  bottom 
below.  It  is  accessible  on  four  sides  by  spring  doors,  which 
are  thrown  open  by  the  weight  of  the  fowl  on  the  connecting 
spring.  One  is  shown  as  opened  by  the  fowl  in  stepping  up 
to  feed.     This  is  a  protection  against  dirt  and  vermin.  * 

Fig.  40.  ^ 


Food  Fountain. 


Though  not  absolutely  essential  to  them,  yet  nothing  contrib- 
utes so  much  to  their  laying,  as  unsalted,  animal  food.  This  is  a 
natural  aliment,  as  is  shown  by  the  avidity  with  which  they 
pounce  on  every  fly,  insect,  or  earth-worm  which  comes 
within  their  reach.  It  would  not  of  course  pay  to  supply 
them  with  valuable  flesh,  but  the  blood  and  off"al  of  the 
slaughter-houses,  refuse  meat  of  all  kinds,  and  especially  the 
scraps  or  cracklings  to  be  had  at  the  melters'  shops,  after 
soaking  for  a  few  hours  in  warm  ^'rviter,  is  one  of  the  best  and 
most  economical  kinds  of  food.  Such  with  boiled  meal  is  a 
very  fattening  food.  Grain  is  at  all  times  best  for  them 
when  cooked,  as  they  will  lay  more,  fatten  quicker,  and  eat 
much  less  when  fed  to  them  in  this  state ;  and  it  may  be  thus 
used  unground,  with  the  same  advantage  to  the  fowls  as  if 
first  crushed,  as  their  digestive  organs  are  certain  to  extract 
the  whole  nutrimen  t.  All  grain  is  good  for  them,  including 
millet,  rice,  the  ( leaginous  seeds,  as  the  sun-flower,  flax, 
hemp,  &c.     It  i?   always  better  to  afford  them  a  variety  of 


HENS THEIR    FOOD. 


217 


grains  where  they  can  procure  them  at  their  option,  and  select 
as  their  appetite  craves. 

They  are  also  fond  of  milk,  and  especially  when  it  has  be- 
come curdled  ;  and  indeed  scarcely  any  edible  escapes  their 
notice.  They  carefully  pick  up  most  of  the  waste  garbage 
around  the  premises,  and  glean  much  of  their  subsistence 
from  what  would  otherwise  become  offensive ;  and  by  their 
destruction  of  innumerable  insects  and  woi-ms,  they  render 
great  assistance  to  the  gardener.  Of  course  their  ever-busy 
propensity  for  scratching,  is  indiscriminately  indulged  just 
after  the  seeds  have  been  sown  and  while  the  plants  are 
young,  which  renders  it  necessary  that  they  be  confined  in 
some  close  yard  for  a  time ;  yet  this  should  be  as  capacious 
as  possible. 

Fig.  41. 


Water  Fountain. 

Water  is  placed  in  the  cask  as  represented  in  the  Fig.,  and  it 
is  then  closely  stopped,  except  an  opening  through  a  tube 
leading  into  a  vessel  below.  As  the  water  is  exhausted  from 
this,  it  descends  from  the  cask  above,  and  a  supply  is  thus  at 
all  times  within  reach  of  the  poultry. 

Their  food  is  better  when  given  to  them  warm,  not  hot ; 
and  there  should  always  be  a  supply  before  them  to  prevent 
gorging.  It  is  better  to  be  placed  on  shelves  or  suspended 
boxes  or  hoppers,  which  are  variously  and  cheaply  constructed, 
to  keep  it  clean  and  out  of  the  reach  of  rats.  Besides  their 
food,  hens  ought  to  be  at  all  times  abundantly  supplied  with 
clean  water,  egg  or  pounded  oyster  shells,  old  mortar  or 
slacked  lime.     If  not  allowed  to  run  at  large,  where  they  can 

19 


218 


DOMESTIC  ANIMALS. 


help  themselves,  they  must  also  be  furnished  with  gravel  to 
a.ssist  their  digestion ;  and  a  box  or  bed  of  ashes,  sand,  and 
dust,  is  equally  essential  to  roll  in  for  the  purpose  of  ridding 
themselves  of  vermin. 


Ficr.  42. 


Poultry  House 


The  Rcn-house 

May  be  constructed  in  various  ways  to  suit  the  wishes  of 
the  owner,  and  when  tastefully  built  it  is  an  ornament  to  the 
premises.  It  should  be  perfectly  dry  throughout,  properly 
lighted,  and  capable  of  being  made  light  and  warm  in  winter, 
yet  afford  all  the  ventilation  desirable  at  any  season.  In  this, 
arrange  the  nests  in  boxes  on  the  sides,  in  such  a  manner  as  to 
humor  the  instinct  of  the  hen  for  concealment  when  she  resorts 
to  them.  When  desirable  to  set  the  hen,  these  nests  may  be 
so  placed  as  to  shut  out  the  others,  yet  open  into  another 
yard  or  beyond  the  enclosure,  so  tha-t  they  can  take  an  oc- 
casional stroll  and  help  themselves  to  food,  &c.  This  prevents 
other  hens  laying  in  their  nests,  (vhile  setting ;  and  it  may  be 
easily  managed,  by  having  their  boxes  placed  on  the  walJ  of 


THE    EGG-HATCHER.  219 

the  building,  with  a  moveable  door  made  tD  open  on  either 
side  at  pleasure.  Hens  will  lay  equally  well  without  a  nest- 
egg,  but  when  broken  up,  they  ramble  off  and  form  new  nests, 
if  they  are  not  confined.  They  will  lay  if  kept  from  the  cock, 
Out  it  is  doubtful  if  they  will  thus  yield  as  many  eggs.  Hens 
disposed  to  set  at  improper  times,  should  be  dismissed  from 
the  common  yard,  so  as  to  be  out  of  reach  of  the  nests,  and 
plentifully  fed  till  weaned  from  this  inclination. 

Fig.  43. 


Egg-Halcher,  or  Eccalobeon. 

Fig.  43  represents  an  egg-hatcher  or  Eccalobeon,  made  of 
different  sizes,  with  shelves  so  arranged  as  to  hold  from  200  to 
800  eggs  without  touching  each  other.  The  outer  box  is  a 
non-conductor,  so  as  to  retain  the  heat  conveyed  to  every 
part  by  water  tubes,  connected  by  a  reservoir  below,  tht? 
bottom  of  which  is  heated  by  the  flame  from  a  spirit-lamp. 
The  temperature  is  indicated  by  a  thermometer  on  the  door  in- 
side, which  should  be  made  equal  to  that  of  the  hen,  say  about 
106°  Fahrenheit.  Her  natural  temperature  is  somewhat  ele- 
vated by  the  feverish  condition  of  the  bird  at  the  period  of  in- 
cubation. 

Chickens  require  to  be  kept  warm  and  dry,  for  a  few  days 
after  hatching,  and  they  may  be  fed  with  hard-boiled  eggs, 
crumbs  of  bread  or  pudding,  and  milk  or  water,  and  allowed 
to  scratch  in  :he  gravel  in  front  of  the  hen,  which  should  be 
confined  in  a  coop  for  the  first  three  or  four  weeks.     After 


220 


DOMESTIC  ANIMALS. 


this,  they  may  be  turned  loose,  when  they  will  thrive  on  any 
thing  the  older  ones  eat.  Many  use  them  for  the  table  when 
they  are  but  a  few  weeks  old ;  but  they  are  unfit  for  this  pur- 
pose, till  they  have  attained  full  maturity. 

The  white-legs  are  preferred  by  some,  from  the  whiteness 
and  apparent  delicacy  of  the  meat ;  but  the  yellow-legged  are 
the  richest  and  most  highly-flavored.  The  color  of  the  feathers 
does  not  seem  to  affect  the  quality  of  the  flesh  or  their  char- 
acter for  laying.  If  we  consider  the  chemical  principles  of  the 
absorption  and  retention  of  heat,  we  should  assume  the  white 
coat  to  be  best,  as  it  i?  coolest  in  summer  when  exposed  to 
the  sun,  and  warmest  in  winter.  Yet  some  of  the  white 
breeds  are  delicate,  and  do  not  bear  rough  usage  or  exposure. 


Fig.  44. 


The  Dorking 

Varieties. 

These  differ  materially  in  their  sizes,  shapes,  and  colors. 

The  Dorking  is  esteemed  one  of  the  best,  being  large,  well 
formed  and  hardy,  good  layers  and  nurses,  and  yielding  an 
excellent  carcass.  They  are  both  white  and  speckled,  and 
generally  have  five  toes. 

The  Poland  is  both  white  and  black,  with  a  large  tufl^ 


VAR  ETIES    C  F    FOWLS. 


221 


generally  of  white  feathers,  on  the  head.  They  are  of  good 
size,  and  excellent  layers,  but  are  seldom  inclined  to  set, 
which  makes  them  pecuferly  desnable  for  such  as  wish  eggs 
only. 

The  Dominique  is  a  speckled  fowl,  of  barely  medium  size, 
compact,  hardy,  good  layers,  and  valuable  for  the  table.  The 
Bucks  county  fowls,  heretofore  principally  reared  near  Phila- 
delphia, possess  but  moderate  pretensions  to  notice,  except  in 
their  immense  size,  a  brace  of  capons  having  been  fattened  to 
19j  lbs.  when  dressed. 

Fig.  45. 


i^0i&^        T.K.V- 

The  Bantam. 

The  Bantam  is  but  little  larger  than  a  pigeon,  and  is  usually 
of  a  pure  white,  but  is  sometimes  speckled.  It  is  generally 
feathered  to  the  toes,  but  may  be  bred  with  clean  legs.  It  is 
very  domestic,  and  a  pleasant  httle  bird  around  the  premises, 
and  is  not  unprofitable.  The  Game  cock  is  of  medium  weight, 
and  yields  good  flesh,  but  is  a  poor  layer,  and  an  undesirable 
tenant  for  the  farm-yard.  Besides  these,  there  are  many  fan- 
ciful varieties,  as  the  Creeper,  with  excessively  short  legs ;  the 
Rumpless,  without  a  tail ;  the  Frizzled,  with  irregular  feathers 
turned  towards  the  head ;  the  Silky  or  Merino  fowl,  with 
brown  or  buff  down,  instead  of  feathers  ;  the  Negro,  with  its 
black  crest,  wattles,  skin,  legs,  and  feathers ;  the  Java  and 
Cochin  China,  of  great  size ;  several  varieties  of  the  Top-knot, 
aad  others. 

19* 


222  DOMESTIC    ANIMALS. 


The  Diseases  of  Hens. 

These  are  not  numerous  or  complicated,  and  may  be  mostly 
avoided  by  proper  treatment  and  food,  which  are  indicated 
with  sufficient  minuteness  in  the  foregoing  observations. 

Gapes  or  Pip  is  generally  owing  to  drinking  unwholesome 
or  dirty  water.  Remove  the  white  blister  on  the  tip  of  the 
tongue,  and  wash  with  sharp  vinegar,  diluted  with  warm 
water ;  or  compel  the  bird  to  swallow  a  large  lump  of  fresh 
butter,  mixed  with  Scotch  snuff.  It  has  been  cured  by  open- 
ing the  mouth  and  forcing  a  pigeon  feather,  with  a  tuft  of  the 
feathers  left  on  the  end,  (the  others  having  been  stripped  oflf,) 
down  the  windpipe,  and  gently  turning  it  as  withdrawn,  to 
be  repeated  the  following  day  if  necessary.  This  detaches 
large  numbers  of  a  slender  red  worm,  collected  in  the  larynx 
of  the  throat,  which  impedes  respiration  and  swallowing.  A 
Uttle  spirits  of  turpentine  mixed  with  the  food  is  a  preventive ; 
as  are  also  clean,  whitewashed  premises,  and  good  food. 
After  these  attacks,  feed  for  a  few  days  with  light  food,  soaked 
bran  and  cabbage,  or  lettuce  chopped  fine. 

Roup,  Catarrh,  or  swelled  head,  is  shown  by  feverish  symp- 
toms, swollen  eyelids,  frequently  terminating  in  blindness, 
rattling  in  the  throat,  and  temporary  strangulation.  These 
are  accompanied  with  a  highly  offensive  watery  discharge, 
from  the  mouth  and  nostrils,  loss  of  appetite,  and  much  thirst. 
They  should  be  placed  near  the  fire ;  their  head  bathed  in 
warm  Castile  soap-suds,  or  milk  and  water.  Stimulating  food, 
as  flour  or  barley-meal,  mustard  and  grated  ginger,  mixed 
and  forced  do-^vn  the  throat,  Boswell  says,  has  been  effectual 
in  their  speedy  restoration.  This,  like  many  other  diseases,  is 
contagious,  and  when  it  appears,  the  bird  should  be  at  once 
separated  from  the  flock. 

Flux  is  cured  by  the  yolk  of  an  egg  boiled  hard;  and 
boiled  barley  soaked  in  wine. 

Costiveness  is  removed  by  giving  bran  and  water  with  a  little 
honey ;  or  give  a  small  dose  of  castor  oil. 

Vermin  are  destroyed  by  giving  them  clean  sand  and  ashes 
to  roll  in,  adding  a  little  quickhme  if  necessary. 

Entire  cleanliness  is  necessary  for  the  avoidance  of  this  and 
other  diseases.  A  perfectly  dry  range  is  also  essential,  nor 
should  there  be  too  many  together,  as  this  is  a  fruitful  source 
of  disea&3. 


THE  TURKEY BREEDING.  223 

THE  TURKEY. 

This  bird  was  iinkno-wn  to  the  ci'vahzed  world  till  the  dis- 
covery of  this  Continent.  It  was  found  here  both  in  its  wild 
and  domesticated  state ;  and  still  occupies  the  whole  range 
of  the  western  hemisphere,  though  the  wild  turkey  disappears 
as  the  country  becomes  settled.  The  Avild  is  larger  than  the 
domesticated  bird,  sometimes  weighing  over  30  lbs.  dressed. 
The  color  of  the  male  is  generally  a  greenish  brown,  approach- 
ing to  black,  and  of  a  rich,  changeable,  metallic  lustre.  The 
hen  is  marked  somewhat  like  the  cock,  but  with  duller  hues. 
Domestication  through  successive  generations  dims  the  bril- 
liancy of  their  plumage,  and  lessens  their  size  and  hardiness. 
It  also  produces  a  variety  of  colois,  though  they  are  mostly 
of  a  black,  buff,  pure  white,  or  speckled. 

They  give  evidence  of  the  comparative  recency  of  their  do- 
mestication, in  the  instinct  which  frequently  impels  the  cock 
to  brood  and  take  care  of  the  young.  Nothing  is  more  com- 
mon than  for  the  male  bird  to  supply  the  place  of  the  hen, 
when  any  accident  befalls  her,  and  to  bring  up  a  family  of 
young  chicks  with  an  equally  instinctive  regard  for  their  help- 
lessness and  safety. 

The  flesh  of  this  bird,  both  wild  and  tame,  is  exceedingly 
delicate  and  palatable ;  and  though  not  possessing  the  high 
game  flavor  of  some  of  the  smaller  wild-fowl,  and  especially 
of  the  aquatic,  as  the  canvass-back  duck,  &c.,  it  exceeds  them 
in  its  digestibility  and  healthfulness.  The  turkey  is  useful 
principally  for  its  flesh,  as  it  seldom  lays  over  a  nest-full  of 
eggs  in  one  season,  when  they  brood  on  these  and  bring  up 
their  young.  If  full-fed,  and  their  first  eggs  are  withdrawn 
from  them,  they  frequently  lay  a  second  time. 

Breeding. 

Those  intended  for  breeders  should  be  compact,  vigorous, 
and  large,  -without  being  long-legged.  They  should  be  daily, 
yet  lightly  fed  through  the  winter,  on  grain  and  roots,  and 
some  animal  food  is  always  acceptable  and  beneficial  to  them. 
They  are  small  eaters,  and  without  caution  will  soon  get  too 
fat.  One  vigorous  male  will  suffice  for  a  flock  of  10  or  12 
hens,  and  a  single  connection  is  sufficient  for  each.  They 
begin  to  lay  on  the  approach  of  warm  weather,  laying  once  a 
day,  or  every  other  day,  till  they  havr)  completed  their  litter ; 
which  in  the  young  or  indifferently  fed,  may  be  10  or  12,  and 


224  DOMESTIC    ANIM4LS. 

in  the  older  ones,  sometimes  reaches  20.  The  hen  is  sly  in 
secreting  her  nest,  but  usually  selects  a  dry,  well-protected 
place.  She  is  an  inveterate  setter,  and  carefully  hatches  most 
of  "her  eggs. 

The  young  may  be  allowed  to  remain  for  24  hours  without 
eating,  then  fed  with  hard-boiled  eggs  made  fine,  or  crumbs 
of  wheat  bread.  Boiled  milk,  curds,  and  buttermilk  afford  an 
excellent  food.  As  they  get  stronger,  oat  or  barley-meal  is 
suitable,  but  Indian-meal,  uncooked,  is  hurtful  to  them  when 
quite  young.  They  are  very  tender,  and  will  bear  neither  cold 
nor  wet,  and  it  is  of  course  necessary  to  confine  the  old  one  for 
the  first  few  weeks.  When  able  to  shift  for  themselves,  they 
may  wander  over  the  fields  at  pleasure  ;  and  from  theh  great 
fondness  for  insects,  they  will  rid  the  meadows  of  innumerable 
grasshoppers,  bugs,  and  beetles,  which  often  do  incalculable 
damage  to  the  farmer.  Early  chickens  are  suflSciently  grown 
to  fatten  the  latter  part  of  autumn  or  the  beginning  of  winter, 
which  is  easily  done  on  any  of  the  grains  or  boiled  roots. 
Both  are  better  for  being  cooked.  They  require  a  higher 
roos ting-place  than  hens,  and  are  impatient  of  too  close  con- 
finement, preferring  the  ridge  of  a  barn,  or  a  lofty  tree,  to  the 
circumscribed  limits  of  the  ordinary  poultry-house.  .  When 
rightly  managed  and  fed,  turkeys  are  subject  to  few  maladies ; 
and  even  these,  careful  attention  will  soon  remove. 


THE  PEACOCK  AND  GUINEA-HEN. 

The  Peacock  is  undoubtedly  the  most  showy  of  the  feathered 
race.  It  is  a  native  of  the  southern  part  of  Asia,  and  is  siill 
found  wild  in  the  islands  of  Java  and  Ceylon,  and  some  parts 
of  the  interior  of  Africa.  They  are  an  ornament  to  the  farm 
premises,  and  are  useful  in  destroying  reptiles,  insects,  and 
garbage ;  but  they  are  quarrelsome  in  the  poultry-yard,  and 
destructive  in  the  garden.  Their  flesh  is  coarse  and  dark,  and 
they  are  worthless  as  layers.  The  brilliant  silvery  green  and 
their  ever-varying  colors  give  place  to  an  entire  white,  in  one 
of  the  varieties. 

The  Guinea-hen  is  a  native  of  Africa  and  the  southern  part 
of  Asia,  where  it  abounds  in  its  wild  state.  Most  of  them  are 
beautifully  and  uniformly  speckled  ;  but  occasionally  they  are 
white  on  the  breast,  like  the  Pintados  of  the  West  India 
Islands,  and  some  are  entirely  white.  They  are  unceasingly 
gaiTulous ;  and  their  excessively  pugnacious  character  renders 


THE    GOOSE BREEDING.  225 

them  uncGmfortable  inmates  with  the  other  poultry.  Their 
flesh,  thouf'h  high-colored,  is  delicate  and  palatable,  but,  like 
the  peacock,  they  are  indifferent  layers.  Both  are  natives  of 
a  warm  climate,  and  the  young  are  tender  and  rather  difficult 
to  rear.  Neither  of  these  birds  is  a  general  favorite,  and  we 
omit  further  notice  of  them. 

THE  GOOSE. 

There  are  many  varieties  of  the  goose.  Main  enumerates 
twenty-two,  most  of  which  are  wild  ;  and  the  tame  are  again 
variously  subdivided.  The  common  white  and  grai/  are  the 
most  numerous  and  profitable.  The  white  Bremen  is  much 
larger,  often  weighing  over  20  lbs.  net.  It  is  of  a  beautiful 
snowy  plumage,  is  domestic  and  reared  without  difficulty, 
though  not  as  prolific  and  hardy  as  the  former.  The  China 
Goose  is  smaller  than  the  gray,  and  one  of  the  most  beautiful 
of  the  family,  possessing  much  of  the  gracefulness  and  gen- 
eral appearance  of  the  swan.  It .»  prolific  and  tolerably  hardy, 
but  has  not  thus  far  been  a  successful  rival  with  the  first. 
The  Guinea  or  African  goose  is  the  largest  of  the  species,  and 
equals  the  size  of  the  swan,  often  dressing  over  25  lbs.  It  is 
a  majestic  and  graceful  bird,  and  very  ornamental  to  water 
scenery.  Several  other  varieties  are  domesticated  in  the  United 
States. 

Breeding. 

Geese  pair  frequently  at  one  year  old,  and  rear  their  young ; 
bu4  with  some  kinds,  especially  of  the  wild,  this  is  deferred 
till  two  and  sometimes  three.  They  require  a  warm,  dry 
place  for  their  nests,  and  when  undisturbed,  they  will  sit 
steadily ;  and  if  the  eggs  have  not  been  previously  chilled  or 
addled,  they  will  generally  hatch  them  a]^  if  kept  on  the  nest. 
To  insure  this,  it  is  sometimes  necessary  to  withdraw  the  first 
hatched,  to  prevent  the  old  ones  wandering  before  all  are  out. 
The  young  should  be  kept  in  a  warm  sheltered  place  till  two 
or  three  weeks  old,  if  the  weather  be  cold,  or  unsettled.  The 
best  food  for  the  goslings,  is  barley  or  oat,  or  boiled  Indian 
meal  and  bread.  Milk  is  also  good  for  them.  They  require 
green  food,  and  are  fond  of  lettuce,  young  clover,  and  fresh 
tender  grass ;  and  after  a  few  weeks,  if  they  have  a  free  range 
on  this,  they  will  forage  for  themselves. 

.Geese  are  not  a  profitable  bird  to  raise,  unless  in  places 
where  they  can  procure  their  own  subsistence,  or  at  least 


226  DOMESTIC    ANIMALS. 

during  the  greater  part  of  the  year.  This  they  are  enabled  U 
do,  wherever  there  are  extensive  commons  of  unpastured  lands, 
or  where  there  are  streams  or  ponds,  lakes  or  marshes  with 
shoal  sedgy  banks.  In  these,  they  will  hve  and  fatten  through- 
out the  year,  if  unobstructed  by  ice.  They  may  be  fed  on  all 
kinds  of  grain  and  edible  roots,  but  it  is  more  economical  to 
give  them  their  food  cooked.  The  well-fattened  goshng  affords 
one  of  the  most  savory  dishes  for  the  table. 

Geese  hve  to  a  great  age.  They  have  been  known  to  ex- 
ceed 100  years.  If  allowed  a  free  range  on  good  food  and 
clean  water,  they  will  seldom  get  diseased.  When  well  fed, 
they  yield  nearly  a  pound  of  good  feathers  in  a  season,  at 
three  or  four  pluckings ;  and  the  largest  varieties  even  exceed 
this  quantity. 

DUCKS 

Are  more  hardy  and  independent  of  attention  than  the 
goose,  and  they  are  generally  the  most  profitable.  They  are 
omnivorous,  and  greedily  eat  every  thing  which  will  afford 
them  nourishment,  though  they  seldom  forage  en  the  grasses 
like  the  goose,  when  they  can  procure  other  food.  They  are 
peculiarly  carnivorous,  and  devour  all  kinds  of  meat,  putrid  or 
fresh  ;  and  are  especially  fond  of  fish,  and  such  insects,  worms, 
and  other  creeping  things,  as  they  can  find  imbedded  in  the 
mud  or  elsewhere.  They  will  often  distend  their  crop  with 
young  frogs,  almost  to  the  ordinar}'-  size  of  their  bodies.  Their 
indiscriminate  appetite  often  renders  them  unfit  for  the  table, 
unless  fattened  out  of  the  reach  of  garbage  and  offensive 
matters.  An  English  admiral  used  to  resort  to  well-fattened 
rats  fo.r  his  fresh  meat  when  at  sea,  and  justified  his  taste  by 
saying,  they  were  more  cleanly  feeders  than  ducks,  which  were 
general  favorites.     « 

The  most  profitable  for  domestic  use,  is  undoubtedly  the  com- 
mon black  duck.  They  lay  profusely  in  the  spring,  when  well 
fed,  often  producing  40  or  50  eggs,  and  sometimes  a  greater 
number,  if  kept  from  setting.  They  are  much  larger  than 
those  of  the  hen,  and  equally  rich  and  nourishing,  but  far  less 
delicate.  They  are  careless  in  their  habits,  and  generally  drop 
their  eggs  wherever  they  happen  to  be  through  the  night, 
whether  in  the  water,  the  road,  or  farm-yard ;  and  as  might 
be  expected  from  such  prodigality  of  character,  they  are  in- 
different setters  and  nurses.  • 

Tlie  dvrklings  are  better  reared  by  setting  the  eggs  under 


DUCKS BREEDING.  227 

a  sedate,  experienced  hen,  as  the  longer  time  necessary  for 
hatching,  requires  patience  in  the  foster-mother  to  develop  the 
young  chick.  They  should  be  confined  for  a  few  days,  and 
away  from  the  water.  At  first  they  may  be  fed  with  bread, 
or  pudding  made  from  boiled  oat,  barley,  or  Indian  meal ;  and 
they  soon  acquire  strength  and  enterprise  enough  to  shift  for 
themselves,  if  afterwards  supplied  with  pond  or  river  water. 
They  are  fit  for  the  table  when  fully  grown,  and  well  fattened 
on  clean  grain.  This  is  more  economically  accomplished  by 
feeding  it  cooked. 

Tlie  varieties  of  ducks  are  almost  innumerable.  Main  de- 
scribes 31,  and  some  naturalists  number  over  100.  Besides 
the  black  duck  above  described,  several  others,  as  the  liffht 
gray,  the  ^vhite  duck,  and  some  of  the  tufted,  are  prohfic,  hardy, 
and  profitable. 

We  omit  further  notice  of  other  varieties ;  and  of  the  swan, 
brant,  pigeons,  &c.,  as  not  profitable  for  general  rearing,  and 
only  suited  to  ornamental  grounds. 


TBI  END 


All  the  Books  on  tkis  Catalogue  sent  by  mail,  to  any  part  of  the  Union, 
free  of  postage,  upoii  receipt  of  price. 


BOOKS  FOR  THE  COUNTRY, 

PUBLISHED  BY 

C.  M.  SAXTON  &  COMPANY, 

140  EULTON  STREET,  NEW  YORK, 

SUITABLE  FOB, 

SCHOOL,  TOWN,  AGRICULTUEAL,  AND  PRIVATE  LIBRARIES. 


Downing's  (A,  J.)  Landscape  Gardening ;  •       .       $3  50 

A  Treatise   on  the  Theory  and  Practice  of  Landscape  Gar- 

dening.  Adapted  to  North  America,  with  a  view  to  the  improvement  of  Country 
Eesidences,  comprising  Historical  Notices  and  General  Principles  of  the  Art.  Direc- 
tions for  Laying  out  Grounds  and  Arranging  Plantations,  the  Description  and  Culti- 
vation of  Hardy  Trees,  Decoration  Accompaniments  to  th§  House  and  Ground,  the 
Formation  of  Pieces  of  Artificial  Waters,  Flower  Gardens,  etc.,  with  Remarks  on 
Eural  Architecture.  Elegantly  illustrated,  with  a  Portrait  of  the  Author.  By  A.  J. 
Downing. 

Downing's  (A.  J.)  Rural  Essays 3  00 

On  Horticulture,  Landscape  Gardening,  Rural  Architecture, 

Trees,  Agriculture,  Fruit,  with  his  Letters  from  England.  Edited,  with  a  Memoir  of 
the  Author,  by  Geokge  Wm.  Cuktis,  and  a  letter  to  his  friends  by  Feedeeika  Bee- 
MEK ;  and  an  elegant  steel  Portrait  of  the  Author. 

Practical  Fruit,  Flower,  &  Kitchen  Gardener's  Companion,  1  00 

With  a  Calendar.  By  Patrick  Neill,  LL.D.,  F.R.S.E.,  Secre- 
tary of  the  Eoyal  Caledonian  Horticultural  Society.  Adapted  to  the  United  States, 
from  the  fourth  edition,  revised  and  improved  by  the  author.  Edited  by  G.  Emeb- 
60N,  M.  D.,  Editor  of  "Johnson's  Farmer's  Encyclopedia."  With  Notes  and  Additions 
by  R.  G.  Paedee,  author  of  "  Manual  of  the  Strawberry  Culture."    With  illustrations. 

Munn's  (B.)  Practical  Land  Drainer ; 50 

Being  a  Treatise  on  Draining  Land,  iu  which  the  most  approved 

•  systems  of  Drainage  are  explained,  and  their  diflferences  and  comparative  merits  dis- 
cussed; with  full  Directions  for  the  Cutting  and  Making  of  Drains,  with  Eemarks 
upon  the  various  Materials  of  which  they  may  be  composed.  With  many  illustra- 
tions.   By  B.  MuNN,  Landscape  Gardener. 

Elliott's  Am.  Fruit- Grower's  Guide  in  Orchard  and  Garden  1  25 

Being  a  Compend  of  the  History,  Modes  of  Propagation,  Cul- 

ture,  &c.,  of  Fruit,  Trees  and  Shrubs,  with  descriptions  of  nearly  all  the  varieties  of 
Fruits  cultivated  in  this  country;  and  Notes  of  their  adaptation  to  localities,  soils,  and 
a  complete  list  of  Fruits  worthy  of  cultivation.    By  F.  E.  Elliott,  Pomologist. 

Pardee  (R.  G.)  on  Strawberry  Culture  ....       60 

A  (Complete  Manual  for  the  Cultivation  of  the  Strawberry  ; 

with  a  description  of  the  best  varieties. 

Also,  Notices  of  the  Easpberry,  Blackberry,  Currant,  Gooseberry  am  Grape ;  with 
directions  for  their  cultivation,  and  'he  selection  of  the  best  varieties.      'Every  pro* 


2  Boolcs  Published  by  C.  M.  Saxton  &  Co. 

cess  here  recommended  has  been  proved,  the  plans  of  others  tried,  and  the  result  is 
here  given."  With  a  valuable  Appendix,  containing  the  observations  and  experieuce 
of  some  of  the  most  successful  cultivators  of  these  fruits  in  our  country. 

Dana's  Muck  Manual  for  the  use  of  Farmers       •       .       $1  00 

A  Tkeatise  on  the  Physical  and  Chemical  Properties  of  Soils, 

ihe  Chemistry  of  Manures;  Including  also  the  subject  of  composts,  artificial  manuieg 
and  irrigation.    A  new  edition,  with  a  chapter  on  Bones  and  Superphosphates. 

The  Stable  Book 1  00 

A  Treatise  on  the  Management  of  Horses,  in  relation  to  Sta- 
bling, Grooming,  Feeding,  Watering  and  Working,  Construction  of  Stabies.  V'^utila- 
tion,  Appendages  of  Stables,  Management  of  the  Feet,  and  Management  of  Diseased 
and  Defective  Horses.  By  John  Stewaet,  Veterinary  Surgeon.  With  Notes  and  ad 
ditions  adapting  it  to  American  Food  and  Climate.  By  A.  B.  Allen,  editor  of  the 
American  Agriculturist. 

Chorlton's  Grape- Grower's  Guide         .....       60 

Intended  Especially  for  the  American  Climate.  Beino^  a  Prac- 
tical Treatise  on  the  cultivation  of  the  Grape  Vine  in  each  department  of  Hot  House, 
Cold  Grapery,  Eetarding  House,  and  Out-door  Culture.  With  plans  for  the  construc- 
tion of  the  requisite  buildings,  and  giving  the  best  methods  for  heating  the  same. 
Every  department  being  fully  illustrated.    By  Williaji  Choelton. 

White's  (W.  N.)  Gardening  for  the  South;     .       .       .       1  25 

Or,  the  Kitchen  and  Fruit  Garden,  with  the  best  methods  for 
their  Cultivation  :  together  with  hints  upon  Landscape  and  Flower  Gardening ;  con- 
taining modes  of  culture  and  descriptions  of  the  species  and  varieties  of  the  Culinary 
Vegetables,  Fruit  Trees  and  Fruits,  and  a  select  list  of  Ornamental  Trees  and  Plants, 
found  by  trial  adapted  to  the  States  of  the  Union  south  of  Pennsylvania,  with  Gar- 
dening Calendars  for  the  same.    By  Wm.  N.  White,  of  Athens,  Georgia. 

Eastwood  (B.)  on  the  Cultivation  of  the  Cranberry   .       .       50 

"With  a  Description  of  the  Best  Yarieties.     By  B.  Eastwood, 

"  Septimus"  of  the  New  York  Tribune, 

Johnson's  (Geo.  W.)  Dictionary  of  Modern  Gardening  .       1  50 

With  One  Hundred  and  Eighty  Wood  Cuts.  Edited,  with  nu- 
merous additions,  by  David  Landeeth,  of  Philadelphia. 

Johnston's  (J.  F.  W.)  Catechism  of  Ag.  Chemistry  &  Geol.       25 
By  James  F.  W.  Johnston,  M.A.,  F.R.SS.L.  and  E.,  Honorary 

Member  of  the  Koyal  Agricultural  Society  of  England,  and  author  of  "  Lectures  on 
Agricultural  Chemistry  and  Geology."  With  an  Introduction  by  JoitN  Pitkin  Nob 
TON,  M.A.,  late  professor  of  Scientific  Agriculture  in  Yale  College.  With  Notes  and 
Additions  by  the  Author,  prepared  expressly  for  this  edition,  and  an  Appendix  com- 
piled by  the  Superintendent  of  Education  in  Nova  Scotia.  Adapted  to  the  use  of 
schools. 

Johnston's  (J.  F.  W.)  Elements  of  Ag'l  Chemistry      .       1  00 

AND  Geology.  With  a  Complete  Analytical  and  Alphabet- 
betical  Index,  and  an  American  Preface.  By  Hon.  Simon  Beown,  Editor  ot  tlie 
"  New  England  Farmer." 

Johnston's  (James  F.  W.)  Agricultural  Chemistry  1  25 

Lectures  on  the  Application  of  Chemistry  and  Geology  to  Ag- 
riculture.  New  edition,  with  an  Appendix,  containing  the  Author's  Experiments  in 
Practical  Agriculture. 

Smith's  (C.  H.  J.)  Landscape  Gardening,  Pleasure  Grounds   1  25 

WiTiT  Practical  Notes  on  Country  Residences,  Villas,  Public 


Books  Published  hy  C.  M.  Saxton  &  Co.  3 

Parks  and  Gardens.  By  Charles  II.  J.  Smith,  Landscape  Gardener  and  Garden  Archi- 
tect, &c.  With  Notes  and  Additions  by  Lewis  F.  Allen,  author  of  '•  Kural  Architec- 
ture," &c. 

1  he  author,  while  engaged  in  his  profession  for  the  last  eighteen  years,  has  often  been 
requested  to  recommend  a  book  which  might  enable  persons  to  acquire  some  general 
knowledge  of  the  principles  of  Landscape  Gardening. 

The  object  of  the  present  Avork  is  to  preserve  a  plain  and  direct  method  of  statement, 
to  be  intelligible  to  all  who  have  had  an  ordinary  education,  and  to  give  directions 
which,  it  is  hoped,  will  be  found  to  be  practical  by  those  who  have  an  adequate 
knowledge  of  country  affairs. 

Norton's  (John  P.)  Elements  of  Scientific  Agriculture ;     $0  60 

Or,  the  Connexion  between  Science  and  the  Art  of  Practicai 

Farming.  (Prize  Essay  of  the  New  York  State  Agricultural  Society.)  By  John  P 
Norton,  M.  A.,  Professor  of  Scientific  Agriculture  in  Yale  College.  Adapted  to  the 
use  of  Schools. 

Nash's  (J.  A.)  Progressive  Farmer  •       .  ...       60 

A  Scientific  Treatise  on  Agricultural  Chemistry,  the  Geology 

of  Agriculture,  on  Plants  and  Animals,  Manures  and  Soils  applied  to  Practical  Agricul- 
ture ;  with  a  Catechism  of  Scientific  and  Practical  Agriculture.    By  J.  A.  Nash. 

Allen  (J.  Fisk)  on  the  Culture  of  the  Grape      .       .       •       1  00 

A  Practical  Treatise  on  the  Culture  and  Treatment  of  the 
Grape  Vine,  embracing  its  history,  with  directions  for  its  treatment  in  the  United 
States  of  America,  in  the  open  air  and  under  glass  structures,  with  and  without  arti- 
ficial heat.    By  J.  Fisk  Allen. 

Mysteries  of  Bee-keeping  Explained ;       ...       1  00 

Being  a  Complete  Analysis  of  the  whole  subject,  consisting  of 
the  Natural  History  of  Bees;  Directions  for  Obtaining  the  greatest  amount  of  Pure ^ 
Surplus  Honey  with  the  least  possible  expense ;  Eemedies  for  losses  given,  and  the 
Science  of  Luck,  fully  illustrated;  the  result  of  more  than  twenty  years'  experience 
in  extensive  Apiaries.    By  M.  Quinby. 

American  Bee-keeper's  Manual ; 1  00 

Being  a  Practical  Treatise  on  the  History  and  Domestic  Econo- 
my  of  the  Honey  Bee,  embracing  a  full  illustration  of  the  whole  subject,  with  the  most 
approved  methods  of  managing  this  Insect,  through  every  branch  of  its  Culture ;  the 
result  of  many  years'  experi^ence.  Illustrated  with  many  engravings.  By  T.  B.  Miner. 

The  Cottage  and  Farm  Bee-keeper ; 50 

A  Practical  Work,  by  a  Country  Curate. 

Weeks  (John  M.)  on  Bees— A  Manual ;         ....       50 

Or,  an  Easy  Method  of  Managing  Bees  in  the  most  profitable 
manner  to  their  owner ;  with  infallible  rules  to  prevent  their  destruction  by  the  Moth. 
With  an  Appendix  by  Woostee  A,  Flanoeks. 

TheEose; 50 

Bring  a  Practical  Treatise  on  the  Propagation,  Cultivatio.v. 

and  management  of  the  Eose  in  all  Seasons;  with  a  list  of  Choice  and  Approved  Varie- 
ties adapted  to  the  Climate  of  the  United  States;  to  which  is  added  full  directions  for 
the  Treatment  of  the  Dahlia.     Illustrated  by  engravings. 

Suist's  (Eobert)  American  Flower-Garden  Directory ;   •       1  25 

Containing  Practical  Directions  for  the  Culture  of  Plants 

in  the  Flower-Gardsn,  Hot-House,  Green-House,  Booms,  or  Parlor  Windows,  for  every 
Month  in  the  Year;  with  a  description  of  the  Plants  most  desirable  in  each,  the 
Nature  of  the  Soil  and  Situation  best  adapted  to  their  Growth,  the  Proper  Season  foT 
Traniplau'dng.  &e. ;    with  Iru^truc-tious  for  erecting  a  Hot-ITouse,  Green-House,  and 


Books  PuhlisJied  by  C.  M.  Saxton  &  Co. 


Laying  out  a  Flower-Garden ;  the  whole  adapted  to  either  large  or  small  Gardens 
with  ln.-.tructions  for  Preparing  the  Soil,  Propagating,  Planting,  Pruning,  Training, 
and  Fruiting  the  Grape  Vine. 

Buist's  TEobert)  Family  Kitchen  Gardener ;  •       .       •       $0  75 

Containing  Plain  and  Accurate  Descriptions  of  all  the  Dip- 

fcrent  Species  and  Varieties  of  Culinary  Vegetables,  with  their  Botanical,  English, 
FreucM,  and  German  names,  alphabetically  arranged,  and  the  best  mode  of  cultivating 
them  ia  the  garden  or  under  glass;  also  Descriptions  and  Character  of  the  most  Select 
Fruits,  tiieir  Management,  Propagation,  &c.  By  Eobekt  BtriBT,  author  of  the  "Ameri- 
can riowcr-Garden  Directory,"  &c.    Paper  50  cents. 

The  American  Florist's  Guide ; 75 

Comprising  the  American  Eose  Culturist  and  Every  Lady  her 

own  Flower  Gardener. 

Every  Lady  Her  own  Flower  Gardener;   ....       50 

Addressed  to  the  Industrious  and  Economical  only  ;  containing 

Simple  and  Practical  Directions  for  Cultivating  Plants  and  Flowers;  also,  Hints  for 
the  Management  of  Flowers  in  Booms,  with  brief  Botanical  Descriptions  of  Plants  and 
Flowers     The  whole  in  plain  and  simple  language.    By  Louisa  Johnson. 

The  American  Agriculturist ; 10  00 

Being  a  Collection  of  Original  Articles  on  the  Various 
Subjects  connected  with  the  Farm,  in  ten  vols.  8vo.,  containing  nearly  four  thousand 

Images. 

The  Complete  Farmer  and  American  Gardener ;  .       .       1  25 

Rural  Economist,  and  New  American  Gardener,  containiuif  a 

Compendious  Epitome  of  the  most  Important  Branches  of  Agricultural  and  Eural 
Economy ;  with  Practical  Directions  on  the  Cultivation  of  Fruits  and  Vegetables ; 
including  Landscape  and  Ornamental  Gardening.    By  T.  G.  Fesseitden.   2  vols,  in  one. 

Fessenden's  (T.  G.)  American  Kitchen  Gard^^ner;    ,  50 

Containing  Directions  for  the  Cultivation  of  Vegetables 
and  Garden  Fruits. 

Dadd's  (Geo.  H.)  American  Cattle  Doctor;     .       .  1  00 

Containing    the    necessary   information    for    preserving   the 

health  and  curing  the  diseases  of  Oxen,  Cows,  Sheep,  and  Swine,  with  a  j^raat  variety  oi 
original  receipts,  and  valuable  information  in  reference  to  Farm  and  Dairy  manage- 
ment, whereby  every  man  can  be  his  own  Cattle  Doctor.  The  principles  taught  in  this 
work  are,  that  all  medication  shall  be  subservient  to  nature — that  all  medicines  must 
be  sanative  in  their  operation,  and  administered  with  a  view  of  luding  the  vital  pow- 
ers, instead  of  depressing,  as  heretofore,  with  the  lancet  or  by  poison.  By  G.  H.  Dadd, 
M.D..  Veterinary  Practitioner. 

Browne's  (D.  Jay)  Field  Book  of  Manures:  1  25 

Or,  American    Muck  Book  ;  Treating  of  the  Nature,  Properties, 

Sources,  History,  and  Operations  of  all  the  Principal  Fertilizers  and  Manures  ia  Com- 
mon Use,  with  Specific  Directions  for  their  Preservation,  and  Application  to  the  Soil 
and  to  Crops ;  drawn  from  Authentic  Sources,  Actual  Experience,  and  Per,'o\ial  Ob- 
servation, as  combined  with  the  leading  Principles  of  Practical  and  Scientific  Agricul- 
ture.   By  D.  Jay  Bkowne 

Randall's  (H.  S.)  Sheep  Husbandry;        -       .       •       •       1  25 

With  an  Account  of  the  different  Breeds,  and  general  direc- 
tions in  regard  to  Summer  and  Winter  Management,  breeding,  and  the  treatment  of 
diseases,  with  portraits  and  other  engravings.    By  Henkt  S.  Ean'dall. 

Blake's  (E,ev.  John  L.)  Farmer  at  Home.  •       •       1  25 

A  Family  Text  Book  for  the  Country  ;  being  a  Cyclopedia  of 


Boohs  Pahllshed  by  CM.  Saxton  &  Co.  5 

Agricultural  Implements  and  Productions,  and  of  the  more  Important  Topics  in  Do- 
mestic Economy,  Science  and  Literature ;  adapted  to  Eural  Life.  By  Eev.  John  L. 
Blake,  D.  D. 

Youatt  and  Martin  on  Cattle ;        .       .       .  .       $1  25 

Being  a  Treatise  on  their  Breeds,  Management  and  Diseases, 

comprising  a  full  History  of  the  Various  Eaces;  their  Origin,  Breeding,  and  Merits; 
their  capacity  for  Beef  and  Milk.  By  W.  Youatt  and  W.  C.  L.  Martin.  The  ^vhole 
forming  a  complete  Guide  for  the  Farmer,  the  Amateur,  and  the  Veterinary  Surgeon, 
with  100  illustrations.    Edited  by  Ambkose  Stevens. 

Youatt  on  the  Horse 1  25 

Youatt  on  the  Structure    and    Diseases    of    the  Horse,  with 

their  Eemedies.  Also,  Practical  Eules  for  Buyers,  Breeders,  Smiths,  &c.  Edited  by 
"W.  C.  Spooner,  M.E.C.V.S.  With  an  account  of  the  Breeds  in  the  United  States,  by 
Heney  S.  Eandall. 

Youatt  and  Martin  on  the  Hog. 75 

A  Treatise  on  the  Breeds,  Management  and  Medical  Treit- 
ment  of  Swine,  with  directions  for  Salting  Pork  and  Curing  Bacon  and  Hams.  By 
Wm.  Youatt,  E.S.  and  W.  C.  L.  Martin.  Edited  by  Ambrose  Stevens.  Illustrated 
with  engravings  drawn  from  life. 

Youatt  on  Sheep; 75 

Their  Breed,  Management  and  Diseases,  with  illustrative  en- 
gravings ;  to  which  are  added  Eemarks  on  the  Breeds  and  Management  of  Sheep  in 
the  United  States,  and  on  the  Culture  of  Fine  Wool  in  Silesia.    By  Williah  Yoxtatt. 

American  Architect.    • 6  00 

The  American  Architect,  comprisin.g'  Original  Designs  of  cheap 
Country  and  Village  Eesidences,  with  Details,  Specifications,  Plans,  and  Directions, 
and  an  estimate  of  the  Cost  of  each  Design.  By  John  W.  Eitch,  Architect.  First 
and  Second  Series,  quarto,  bound  in  1  vol.,  half  roan. 

Domestic  Medicine 3  00 

Gunn's  Domestic  Medicine,  or  Poor  Man's  Friend,  in  the  Hours  of 

Affliction,  Pain,  and  Sickness,  Raymond's  new  revised  edition,  improved  and  enlarged. 
By  John  C.  Gunn,  8vo. 

Pedder's  (James)  Farmer's  Land  Measurer;       ...       50 

Or,  Pocket  Companion  ;  showing  at  one  view,  the  Contents  of  any 
Piece  of  Land  from  Dimensions  taken  in  Yards.  With  a  set  of  Useful  Agricultural 
Tables. 

Chemical  Field  Lectures  for  Agriculturists  ;  •  1  00 

Or,  Chemistry  without  a  Master.  By  Dr.  Julius  Adolphus 
Stockhardt,  Professor  in  the  Eoyal  Academy  of  Agriculture  at  Tharant.  Translated 
from  the  German.    Edited,  with  notes,  by  James  E.  Techemacheb. 

Thaer's  (Albert  D.)  Agriculture 2  00 

The  Principles  of  Agriculture,  by  Albert  D.  Thaer  ;  trans- 
lated by  William  Shaw  and  Cuthbekt  W.  Johnson,  Esq.,  F.E.S.  With  a  Memoir 
of  the  Author.    1  vol.  8vo. 

This  work  is  regarded  by  those  who  are  competent  to  judge,  as  one  of  the  most 
beautiful  works  that  has  ever  appeared  on  the  subject  of  agriculture.  At  the  same 
.time  that  it  is  eminently  practical,  it  is  philosophical;  and,  even  to  the  general  reader, 
remarkably  entertaining. 

VoQ  Thaer  was  educated  for  a  physician ;  and,  after  reaching  the  summit  of  his  pro- 
fession, he  retired  into  the  country,  where  his  garden  soon  became  the  admiration  of 
the  citizens  ;  and  when  he  began  to  lay  out  plantations  and  orchards,  to  cultivate  hfii-b- 
age  and  vegetables,  the  whole  country  was  astonished  at  his  science  in  the  art  of  cul- 
tivation. He  soon  entered  upon  a  large  farm,  and  opened  a  school  for  the  sturty  of 
Agriculture,  where  his  fame  became  known  from  one  end  of  Europe  to  the  other. 


6  Books  PuhlisJied  hy  C.  M.  Saxton  &  Co. 

This  great  work  of  Von  Thaer  s  has  passed  through  ten  editions  in  the  United  States, 
but  it  is  still  comparatively  unknoAvn.  The  attention  of  owners  of  landed  estates  in 
cities  and  towns,  as  well  as  those  persons  engaged  in  the  practical  pursuits  of  agricul- 
ture, is  earnestly  requested  to  this  volume. 

Guenon  on  Milch  Cows ;  •       .       .       •       .       .  $0  60 

A  Treatise  on  Milch  Cows,  whereby  the  Quality  and  QuaDtiiy  or 

Milk  which  any  Cow  will  give  may  be  accurately  determined  by  observing  Natural 
Marks  or  External  Indications  alone  ;  the  length  of  time  she  will  continue  to  give 
Milk,  &c.,  &c.  By  M.  Francis  Guenon,  of  Libourne,  France.  Translated  by  Nicho 
LAS  P.  Tkist,  Esq.;  with  Introduction,  Remarks  and  Observations  on  the  Cow  and  the 
J  airy,  by  John  S.  Skinneb.  Illustrated  with  numerous  Engravings.  Neatly  done  up 
in  paper  covers,  37  cts. 

American  Poultry  Yard ; 1  00 

Comprising  the  Origin,  History,  and  Description  of  the  dim^rent 

Breeds  of  Domestic  Poultry,  with  complete  directions  for  their  Breeding,  Crossing, 
Eearing,  Fattening,  and  Preparation  for  Market;  including  specific  directions  for 
Oaponizing  Fowls,  and  for  the  Treatment  of  the  Principal  Diseases  to  which  they  are 
subject,  drawn  from  authentic  sources  and  personal  observation.  Illustrated  with 
numerous  engravings.    By  D.  J.  Bkowne. 

The  Shepherd's  Own  Book  : 2  00 

With  an  Account  of  the  different  Breeds  and  Management 

and  Diseases  of  Sheep,  and  General  Directions  in  regard  to  Summer  and  Winter  Man- 
agement, Breeding,  and  the  Treatment  of  Diseases ;  with  illustrative  engravings,  by 
YocATT  &  Randall,  embracing  Skinner's  Notes  on  the  Breed  and  Management  oi' 
Sheep  in  the  United  States,  and  on  the  Culture  of  Fine  Wool. 

Allen's  (L.  F.)  Enral  Architecture ;         ....       1  25 

Being  a  complete  Description  of  Farm  Houses,  Cottages,  and 

Out  Buildings,  comprising  Wood-houses,  Workshops,  Tool-houses,  Carriage  and  Wfgou 
houses.  Stables,  Smoke  and  Ash  houses.  Ice  houses,  Apiaries  or  Bee-houses,  Poultry- 
houses,  Rabbitry,  Dovecote,  Piggery,  Barns,  and  Sheds  for  Cattle,  &c.,  &c. ;  together 
with  Lawns,  Pleasure  Grounds,  and  Parks  ;  the  Flower,  Fruit,  and  Vegetable  Garden ; 
also,  Useful  and  Ornamental  Domestic  Animals  for  the  Country  Resident,  &c.,  &c. 
Also,  the  best  method  of  conducting  water  into  Cattle  Yards  and  Houses.  Beautifully 
Illustrated. 

Allen's  (R.  L.)  American  Farm  Book 1  00 

The  American  Farm  Book  ;  or,  a  Compend  of  American  xlgricul- 

ture,  being  a  Practical  Treatise  on  Soils,  Manures,  Draining,  Irrigation,  Grasses,  Grain, 
Roots,  Fruits,  Cotton,  Tobacco,  Sugar  Cane,  Rice,  and  every  Staple  Product  of  the 
United  States ;  with  the  best  methods  of  planting,  cultivating,  and  preparation  for 
market.    Illustrated  by  more  than  100  engravings.    By  R.  L.  Allen. 

Eeemelin's  (Chas.)  Vine-dresser's  Manual  ....       50 

An    Illustrated    Treatise    on    Vineyards    and    Wine-making, 

containing  full  instructions  as  to  location  and  soil ;  preparation  of  ground ;  selection 
and  propagation  of  vines;  the  treatment  of  a  young  Vineyard;  trimming  and  training 
the  vines  ;  manures  ;  and  the  making  of  wine. 

Eement's  (C.  N.)  Eabbit  Fancier; 50 

A  Treatise  on  the  Breeding.  Rearing,  Feeding  and  Ge.vfral 
Management  of  Rabbits,  with  remarks  upon  their  diseases  and  remedies,  to  which  are 
added  full  directions  for  the  construction  of  Hutches,  Rabbitries,  &c.,  together  with 
recipes  for  cooking  and  dressing  for  the  table.    Beautifully  illustrated. 

The  Horse's  Foot,  and  how  to  keep  it  Sound;         •  50 

Wtttt  Cuts  Iixustratixg  the  Anatomy  of  the  Foot,  and  con- 
taining valuable  hints  on  shoeing  and  stable  management  in  health  and  in  disease. 
By'\ViLLiAM  Miles. 


Books  PuUislied  hy  C.  M.  Saxton  &  Co.  7 

Stephens'  (Henry)  Book  of  the  Farm ;     .       .  4  00 

A  Complete  Guide  to  the  Farmer,  Steward,  Ploughman,  Cat- 

t?eman,  Shepherd,  Field  "Worker,  and  Dairy  Maid.  By  Henry  Stephens.  With  Foui 
Hundred  and  Fifty  Illustrations ;  to  which  are  added  Explanatory  Notes,  Remarks, 
&C.,  by  J.  8.  SxiKNEE,    Eeally  one  of  the  best  books  for  a  farmer  to  possess. 

Allen's  (E,.  L.)  Diseases  of  Domestic  Aiuimals ;  •  75 

Beixg  a  History  and  Description  of  the  Horse,  Mule,  Cat- 

tle,  Sheep,  Swine,  Poultry,  and  Farm  Dogs,  with  Directions  for  their  Management, 
Breeding,  Crossing,  Rearing,  Feeding,  and  Preparation  for  a  profitable  Market ;  also, 
their  Diseases  and  Remedies,  together  with  full  Directions  for  the  Management  of  the 
Dairy,  and  the  Comparative  Economy  and  Advantages  of  Working  Animals,  tho 
Horse,  Mule,  Oxen,  &c.    By  E.  L.  Allen. 

Browne's  (D.  J.)  American  Bird  Fancier;        •        .       .       50 

Considered  with  reference  to  the  Breeding,  Rearing,  Feed- 
ing,  Management,  and  Peculiarities  of  Cage  and  House  Birds.  Illustrated  with  En- 
gravings.   Bj  1j.  Jay  Beowne. 

Saxton's  Rural  Hand  Books, 1  25 

First  Series,  containing  Treatises  on — 

The  Hoese,  The  Pests  of  the  Fae^, 

The  Hog,  Domestic  Fowls,  and 

The  Honey  Bee,  The  Cow. 

Second  Series,  containing — 1  25 

EvEET  Lady  Her  Own  Floweb  Gaedeneb,  Essay  on  Mantiees. 

Elements  OF  AGEicuLTtrEE,  American  Kitchen  Gabdeneb. 

BiED  Fancleb,  Ameeican  Rose  Cultueist. 

Third  Series,  containing — 1  25 

Miles  on  the  Hoese's  Foot,  Vine-Deessee's  Manual, 

The  Babbit  Fanciee,  Bee-Keepee's  Chabt, 

Weeks  on  Bees,  Chemistet  made  Easy. 

Fourth  Series,  containing — 1  25 

Pebsoz  on  the  Yine,  Hooper's  Dog  and  Gun, 

Liebig's  Familiae  Letters,  Skilful  Housewife, 

Browne's  Memoirs  of  Indian  Coen. 

Boussinganlt's  (J.  B.)  Rural  Economy,    .  .       .       1  25 

In  its  Relations  with  Chemistry,  Physics,  and  Meteorology; 
or,  Chemistry  applied  to  Agriculture.  By  J.  B.  Botissingault.  Translated,  with 
Notes,  etc.,  by  George  Law,  Agriculturist. 

"The  work  is  the  fruit  of  a  long  life  of  study  and  experiment,  and  its  perusal  will 
aid  the  farmer  greatly  in  obtaining  a  practical  and  scientific  knowledge  of  his  profes- 
sion." 

Thompson  (R.  D.)  on  the  Food  of  Animals.       ...       75 

Experimental  Researches  on  the  Food  of  Animals  and  the 
Fattening  of  Cattle ;  with  remarks  on  the  Food  of  Man.  Based  upon  experiments 
undertaken  by  order  of  the  British  Government,  by  Robert  Dundas  Thompson, 
M.D.,  Lecturer  on  Practical  Chemistry,  University  of  Glasgow. 


8  Boohs  Published  by  C.  M.  Saxton  &  Co. 

Richardson  on  Bogs  :  their  Origin  and  Varieties.     •       $0  50 

DiEECTIONS  AS  TO  THEIR  GENERAL  MANAGEMENT.  With  numer- 
ous original  anecdotes.  Also,  Complete  Instructions  as  to  Treatment  under  Disease. 
By  H.  D.  EicHARDSON.    Illustrated  with  numerous  wood  engravings. 

This  is  not  only  a  cheap,  but  one  of  the  best  works  ever  published  on  the  Dog. 

Liebig's  (Justus)  Familiar  Letters  on  Chemistry,      .       .       50 

And  its  relation  to  Commerce,  Physiology,  and  Agriculture. 
Edited  by  Johk  Gaedenek,  M.D. 

The  Bog  and  Gun 60 

A  few  Loose  Chapters  on  Shooting,  among  which  will  be  found 
some  anecdotes  and  incidents.  Also  instructions  for  Dog  Breaking,  and  interesting 
letters  from  Sportsmen.     By  A  Bad  Shot. 

Morgan  Horses ; •       1  25 

A  Premium  Essay  on  the  Origin,  History,  and  Characteristics 

of  this  remarkable  American  Breed  of  Horses ;  tracing  the  Pedigi-ee  from  the  original 
Justin  Morgan,  through  the  most  noted  of  his  Progeny,  down  to  the  present  time. 
With  numerous  portraits.  To  which  are  added  hints  for  Breeding,  Breaking,  and 
General  Use  and  Management  of  Horses,  with  practical  Directions  for  training  them 
at  Agricultural  Fairs.    By  D.  C.  Linsley. 

Bridgeman's  (Thos.)  Young  Gardener's  Assistant :       •       1  50 

In  three  parts,   Containing  Catalogues  of  Garden  and  Flower 

Seed,  with  practical  directions  under  each  head  for  the  Cultivation  of  Culinary  Vege- 
tables and  Flowers.  Also,  directions  for  cultivating  Fruit  Trees,  the  Grape  Vine,  &c., 
to  which  is  added  a  Calendar  to  each  part,  showing  the  work  necessary  to  be  done  in 
departments  each  month  of  the  year.    One  volume  octavo. 

Bridgeman's  Kitchen  Gardener's  Instructor         ^  Cloth         50 

Cloth  60 

Bridgeman's  Florist's  Guide  i  Cloth         50 

Cloth  60 

Bridgeman's  Fruit  Cultivator's  Manual  i  Cloth  50 

Cloth  60 

Chinese  Sugar  Cane  and  Sugar  Making ;        .        Cloth  50 

Its  History,  Culture  and  Adaptation  to  the  Soil,  Climate  and 

Economy  of  the  United  States,  with  an  account  of  various  processes  of  Manufacturing 
Sugar.  Drawn  from  authentic  sources  by  Chakles  F.  Suaksbcrt,  A.M.,  late  Commis- 
sioner at  the  Exhibition  of  all  Nations  at  London. 

The  Cotton  Planter's  Manual ; 1  00 

Being  a  Compilation  of  Facts  from  the  Best  Authorities  on  the 

Culture  of  Cotton,  its  Natural  History,  Chemical  Analysis,  Trade  and  Consumption ; 
and  embracing  a  History  of  Cotton  and  the  Cotton  Gin.    By  J.  A.  Titenek. 

CoDbett's  American  Gardener ; 60 

A  Treatise  on  the  Situation,  Soil,  and  Laying-Out  of  Gardens, 

and  the  Making  and  Managing  of  Hot  Beds  and  Green-Houses,  and  on  the  Propagation 
and  Cultivation  of  the  several  sorts  of  Vegetables,  Herbs,  Fruits  and  Flowers. 

The  Western  Fruit  Book ;    • 1.25 

Being  a  Compend  of  the  History,  Modes  of  Propagation,  Cui^ 

ture,'&c.,  of  Fruit  Trees  and  Shrubs,  &c.,  &c.    By  F.  E.  Elliott. 


Boohs  Published  by  C.  M.  Saxtou  &  Co. 
SAXTON^S       # 

All  arranged  and  adapted  to  the  Use  of  American  Farmers. 
PRICE  35  CENTS  EACH. 

Hogs; 

Their   Origin    and  Varieties  ;   Management,  With  a  Yiew  to 

Profit,  and  Treatment  under  Disease ;  also,  Plain  Directions  relative  to  the  most  ap- 
proved modes  of  preserving  their  Flesh.  By  H.  D,  Kichardson,  author  of  "The  Hive 
and  the  Honey  Bee,"  «&c.,  &c.     With  illustrations— 12mo. 

The  Hive  and  the  Honey  Bee; 

With  Plain  Directions  for  obtaining  a  Considerable  Annual 

Income  from  this  branch  of  Rural  Economy  ;  also  an  Account  of  the  Diseases  of  Bees 
and  their  Remedies,  and  Remarks  as  to  their  Enemies,  and  the  best  mode  of  protectang 
the  Hives  from  their  attacks.    By  H.  D.  Richardson.     With  illustrations. 

Domestic  Fowls; 

Their    Natural     History,    Breeding,    Eearing  and    General 

Management.  By  H.  D.  Richardson,  author  of  "The  Natural  History  of  the  Fossil 
Deer,"  &c.    With  illustrations. 

The  Horse; 

Their  Origin  and  Varieties  ;  with  Plain  Directions  as  to 
the  Breeding,  Rearing  and  General  Management,  with  Instructions  as  to  the  Treat- 
ment of  Disease.    Handsomely  Illustrated — 12mo.    By  H.  D.  Richardson. 

The  Rose ; 

The  American  Rose  Culturist  ;   being  a  Practical  Treatise  on 

the  Propagation,  Cultivation,  and  Management  in  all  Seasons,  &c.  With  full  direc- 
tions for  the  Treatment  of  the  Dahlia. 

The  Pests  of  the  Farm ; 

With  Instructions  for  their  Extirpation  ;  being  a  Manual  of 
Plain  Directions  for  the  certain  Destruction  of  every  description  of  Yermin.  With 
numerous  illustrations  on  Wood. 

An  Essay  on  Manures; 

Submitted    to   the    Trustees    of   the   Massachusetts    Society 

for  Promoting  Agriculture,  for  their  Premium.    By  Samttel  H.  Dana. 

The  American  Bird  Fancier; 

Considered  with  reference  to  the  Breeding,  Eearing,  Feed- 
ing.  Management  and  Peculiarities  of  Cage  and  House  Birds.  Illustrated  with  En- 
gravings.   By  D.  Jay  Brq-wne. 

Chemistry  Made  Easy. 

For  the  use  of  Farmers.     By  J.  Topham. 

Elements  of  Agriculture. 

Translated  from  the  FrencE;  and  Adapted  to  the  use  of  Ameri- 
can Farmers.    By  F.  G.  Skinner. 


10         Books  Fuhlishcd  hy  C.  Zvl.  Saxton  &  Co. 

The  American  Kitchen  Gardener ; 

Containing  Directions  for  the  Cultivation  of  Vegetables 
and  Gardes  Frui^    Bj  T.  G-.  F^sbenden. 

Chinese  Sugar-Cane  and  Sugar  Making. 

Its  History,  Culture  and  Adaptation  to  the  Soil,  Climate,  and 

Economy  of  the  United  States,  with  an  account  of  various  processes  of  Manufacturing 
Sugar.  Drawn  from  authentic  sources  by  Charles  F.  Stansbuey,  A.M^  late  Com- 
missioner at  the  Exhibition  of  all  Nations  at  London. 

Persoz'  Culture  of  the  Vine. 

A  New  Process  for  the  Culture  of  the  Vine,  by  Persoz.  Pro- 
fessor to  the  Faculty  of  Sciences  of  Strasbourg ;  directing  Professor  of  the  School  of 
Pharmacy  of  the   same  city.     Translated  by  J.  O'C.  Baeclat,   Surgeon  U.  S.  N. 

Browne's  Memoirs  of  Indian  Corn. 

Joel  Barlow's  Poem  on  Hasty  Pudding. 

The  Bee-keeper's  Chart ; 

Being  a  brief  Practical  Treatise  on  the  Instinct,  Habits,  and 

Management  of  the  Honey  Bee,  in  all  its  various  Branches,  the  result  of  many  years' 
practical  experience,  whereby  the  author  has  been  enabled  to  divest  the  subject  of 
much  that  has  been  coni^idered  mysterious  and  difficult  to  overcome,  and  render  it 
more  sure,  profitable,  and  interesting  to  every  one  than  it  has  heretofore  been.  By  E. 
W.  Phelps. 

Every  Lady  Her  Own  Flower  Gardener ; 

Addressed  to  the  Industrious  and  Economldal  only  ;  containing 

Simple  and  Practical  Directions  for  Cultivating  Plants  and  Flowers  :  also.  Hints  for  tha 
Management  of  Flowers  in  Kooms,  with  brief  Botanical  Descriptions  of  Plants  and 
Flowers.    The  whole  in  plain  and  simple  language.    By  Louisa  Johnson. 

The  Cow;  Dairy  Husbandry  and  Cattle  Breeding. 

By  M.  M.  MiLBURN,  and  revised  by  H.  D.  Richardson  and  Ambrose 
Stevens.    With  Illustrations. 

Wilson  on  the  Culture  of  Flax ; 

Its  Treatment,  Agricultural  and  Technical  ;   delivered  before 

the  New  York  State  Agricultural  Society,  at  the  Annual  Fair  at  Saratoga,  in  Septem- 
ber last,  by  John  Wilson,  late  President  of  the  Eoyal  Agricultural  College  at  Ciren- 
cester, England. 

Weeks  on  Bees.— A  Manual. 

Or,  an  Easy  Method  of  ISIanaging  Bees  in  the  most  profitable 
manner  to  their  owner,  v/ith  infallible  rules  to  prevent  their  destruction  by  the  Moth ; 
with  au  Appendix  by  Wooster  A.  Flandeks. 

Reemelin's  (Chas.)  Vine- dresser's  Manual ; 

Containing  full  Instructions  as  to  Location  and  Soil  :  Prepa- 
ration  of  'xround;  Selection  and  Propagation  of  Vines;  the  Treatment  of  a  Young 
Vineyard  ;  trimming  and  training  the  vines ;  manures  and  the  making  of  wine.  Every 
department  illustrated. 

Bement's  (G.  N=)  Kabbit  Fancier. 

A  Treatise  on  the  Breeding,  Rearing,  Feeding,  and  General 
Management  of  Rabbits,  with  remarks  upon  their  diseases  and  remedies;  to  which  are 
added  full  directions  for  the  construction  of  Hutches,  Babbitries,  &c.,  together  with 
recipe;s  for  cooking  and  dressing  for  the  table. 


Books  Published  by  C.  M.  Saxton  &  Co.  11 

The  Horse's  Foot,  and  how  to  keep  it  Sound. 

With  Cuts  illustrating  the  Anatomy  of  the  Foot,  and  contain- 
ing valuable  hints  on  Shoeing  and  Stable  Management  both  in  Health  and  Disease. 
By  William  Miles. 

The  Skillful  Housewife. 

Or,  Complete  Guide  to  Domestic  Cookery,  Taste,  Comfort  and 

Economy,  embracing  659  receipts  pertaining  to  Household  Duties,  the  care  of  Health, 
Gardening,  Birds,  Education  of  Children,  etc.,  etc.    By  Mrs,  L.  G.  Abell. 

Sichardson  on  Dogs;  their  Origin  and  Varieties. 

Directions  as  to  their  General  Management.  With  numerous 
original  anecdotes.  Also,  Complete  Instructions  as  to  Treatment  under  Disease.  lUuS' 
trated  with  numerous  wood  engravings. 

This  is  not  only  a  cheap,  but  one  of  the  best  works  ever  published  on  the  Dog. 

Liebig's  (Justus)  Familiar  Letters  on  Chemistry. 

And  its  Relation  to  Commerce,  Physiology,  and  Agriculture 

Edited  by  John  Gaedeitee,  M.D. 

The  Dog  and  Gun. 

A  Few  Loose  Chapters  on  Shooting,  among  which  will  be  found 
some  anecdotes  and  incidents.  Also,  Instructions  for  Dog  Breaking,  and  interesting 
letters  from  Sportsmen.    By  A  Bad  Shot. 

Saxton's  Hand-BookSj  Fifty  Cent  SerieSj  in  Paper 

BinsT's  Kitchen  Garden,  Thompson's  Food  op  ^NOiAi*. 

Pardee  on  the  Strawberry,  Allen's  Domestic  Auimau, 

Cuorlton's  Geapb  Geo  webs'  Gthde,  Field's  Pbab  CwsviX. 


